EnglishEntrance Examination for Non-English Major Doctoral Candidates
March15, 2003
&5d>jEaB} I. Listening Comprehension (20 point)
1YnDh o;~ Section One
`hH1rw@7< Directions: In this section, you will hearthree short talks. At the end of each talk, you will hear some questions. Boththe talks and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear aquestion, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A, B, Cand D. Then mark the corresponding letter on the ANSWER SHEET with a singleline through the centre.
;#xhlR* ~ >65 6if O 1. A. a disease B. a potential cure for AIDS
aUA+% C.immune system D.a patient suffering from AIDS
f$WO{ J 2. A. High fever. B. Broken legs.
]U xx_1$, C.Cancer. D.AIDS.
o)-Qd3d%S 3. A. Doctors don’t know what causes AIDS.
^jCkM29eu B.Doctors don’t like to treat patients with AIDS.
qvk?5#B C.AIDS attacks the immune system, turning good cells into bad ones.
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6Hr*X D.AIDS patients refuse to receive any treatment offered by doctors.
T@Q.m.iV4 4. A. perfect. B. inadequate C.desirable D. inefficient
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AQ\ 5. A. They might find it hard to live withhim.
6(ja5)sn* B.They might love him so much as to spoil him.
DDkO g] C.They might expect too much from him.
g" M1HxlV D.They might love him more than average parents do.
C2`END; 6. A. The parents’ dream is nothing but afalse illusion.
'x6Mqv1W B.The child will not look like their former child.
92} , A`= C.The child will be spoiled.
o^AK@\e:^Z D.The child may fail to fulfill the parents’ dream.
+F0M?, 7. A. The children’s interests are moreimportant.
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\b,W&%P B.The parents’ wishes should be respected.
j4NS 5 C.The reasons for cloning children are justified.
1[}VyP6 e D.There is a need to clone children.
?^@; 8m 8. A. They try them on first.
g\jdR_/ B.They put their right hand on them.
}S4 2.f.p C.They just have a look.
M=!x0V ; D.They feel and touch them.
9h9Y:i*Gh5 9. A. The things are used by people veryoften.
E7 jv B.People do not pay attention to the feel of things.
`#l_`j=r$ C.People know how to use the things so they don’t need to feel them.
q& P" D.The things are easy to feel but difficult to see.
?EtK/6dJZt 10. A. Touching by Feeling
Cjwg1?^RZ B. To See or to Feel
2j_L
jY'7 C.To See Better
—Feel
;, IGO7R D. Ways of Feeling With Your Feet
fM8 :Nt$ Pu}2%P)p Section B
0gn
r@9,X Part 1
W}T$ Z Directions: Look at the questions for thispart. You will hear a presentation on Time Management. For questions 11-15,while you are listening, choose the correct word or phrase to complete eachsentence by marking one letter A, B or C for the word or phrase you choose onthe ANSWER SHEET with a single line through the centre.
7DT9\BT -lLq) 11. The speaker wants to show you _______.
==Y^~ab;K A.the harmful effects of stress
-1U ]@s B.how you can be more effective at work
gI T"nG=a4 C.how to lead a balanced life
<.:B .k 12. You can subject yourself to high levelsof stress by ______.
Z}XA ( ;ck A.meeting other people’s demands on your time
i5:fn@& B.traveling a lot
fkYa C.regularly working very long hours
]Wfnpqc^ 13. Typically, stress is related to ______.
`@eQL[Z9x A.jobs with high salaries
!v $hqNt7 B.long working hours
QCMt4`% 'u C.high levels of responsibility
DQwbr\xy\ 14. One thing the speaker suggests you dois _____ in order to reduce your working hours.
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7 A.to delegate B. to updatefacilities D. to take a holiday
I)n%aT fo8 15. To help you manage your time moreeffectively, the speaker suggests you start saying ______.
d)9=hp;,V A.“no” to other people
4R}2H>VV% B.“Yes” to other people
i?||R|>;"' C.“Sorry” to yourself
= q;ACW,z vr2t MD Part 2
Z+FJ cvYx Directions: Look at the five statements(16-20) for this part. You will hear an interview between a sales manager andan applicant for the position of advertising manager. Decide if each statementis correct according to the interview. If you think it is correct, mark letterA on your ANSWER SHEET with a single line through the center. If you think itis not correct, mark letter B on the ANSWER SHEET with a single line throughthe centre.
rr9N(AoxW 16. The sales manager is satisfied with thepresent advertising firm.
{
ge^&l 17. Miss Edison will be responsible to Mr.Grant for all advertising.
"){ "{~ 18. The company has never advertised on TV.
}eSaF@. 19. The company produces chairs.
S0du, A~ 20. The sales manager shows great interest in MissEdison’s idea about TV advertising and very probably Miss Edison will get thejob.
CKy' 8I9 J?LetyDNr] II. Reading Comprehension (25 points)
(jtrQob Directions: There are five passages in thispart. Each of the passages is followed by five questions or unfinishedstatements. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choosethe best one and mark your answer on the ANSWER SHEET with a single linethrough the center.
RMDzPda. i=nd][1n 1
Thegreat advance in rocket theory 40 years ago showed that liquid-fuel rocketswere far superior in every respect to the skyrocket with its weak solid fuel,the only kind of rocket then known. However, during, the last decade, largesolid-fuel rockets with solid fuels about as powerful as liquid fuels have madetheir appearance, and it is a favorite layman’s question to inquire which oneis “better”. The question is meaningless; one might as well ask whether agasoline or a diesel engine is “better”. It all depends on the purpose. Aliquid-fuel rocket is complicated, but has the advantage tat it can becontrolled beautifully. The burning of the rocket engine can be stoppedcompletely it can be re-ignited when desired. In addition, the thrust can bemade to vary by adjusting the speed of the fuel pumps. A solid-fuel rocket, onthe other hand, is rather simple in construction, though hard to build when areally large size is desired. But once you have a solid-fuel rocket, it isready for action at very short notice. A liquid-fuel rocket has to be fueledfirst and cannot be held in readiness for very long after it has been fueled.However, once a solid-fuel rocket has been ignited, it will keep burning. Itcannot be stopped and re-ignited whenever desired (it could conceivably bestopped and re-ignited after a pre-calculated time of burning has elapsed) andits thrust cannot be varied. Because a solid-fuel rocket can be kept ready fora long time, most military missiles employ solid fuels, but manned space flightneeds the fine adjustments that can only be provided by liquid fuels. It may beadded that a liquid-fuel rocket is an expensive device; a large solid-fuelrocket is, by comparison, cheap. But the solid fuel, pound per pound, costsabout 10 times as much as the liquid fuel. So you have on the one hand, anexpensive rocket with a cheep fuel and on the other hand a comparatively cheaprocket with an expensive fuel.
k_/*> lIZY 21. The author feels that a comparison ofliquid and solid-fuel rockets shows that ______.
^
e1@o \] A.neither type is very economical
#8i DM5:EQ B.the liquid-fuel rocket is best
f
l9`Mgu C.each type has certain advantages
I w~R@, D.the solid-fuel rocket is best
`zw Xf Y,% 22. The most important consideration formanned space flight is that the rocker be ________.
B /0Xqyu A.inexpensive to construct
.J"QW~g^ B.capable of lifting heavy spacecraft into orbit
o#fr5 >h-w C.inexpensive to operate
&N:Iirg D.inexpensive to operate
? (0=+o(` 23. Solid fuel rockets are expensive tooperate because of their _______.
^CO{86 V A.size B.fuel
J2ad G+= C.construction D.complicated engines
xy)) }c% 24. Which of the following statements isnot characteristic of liquid-fuel rockets?
SMoJKr(:w# A.The fuel is cheap. B.They are cheap to build.
( RO-~ - C.They can be stopped and re-ignited.
0Un?[O D.They must be used soon after fueling.
cD6S;P Sg 25. The author tells us that ______.
@Q
teC@k A.whether a liquid-fuel or a solid-fuel rocket is better depends on the purpose
n&OM~ Vs B.neither type is superior
z36wWdRa6 C. fortyyears ago, large solid-fuel rockets with solid fuels as powerful as liquidfuels were made
5C0![ $W> D.the thrust can be made to vary by adjusting the direction of the pump
17$'r^t,S xP4}LL9) 2
Imaginean accident in which a nuclear power plant releases radioactive gas. The cloud startsmoving with the wind. Clearly, the authorities will want to evacuate anyone inits path, but what is that path? Local wind information is meaningless withoutinformation about terrain; a mountain range or series of valleys can divertboth wind and gas in unpredictable directions.
VWq]w5o QO Tomake “downwind” a useful term, scientists at Lawrence Livermore NationalLaboratory have put the United States on a computer, the entire United States
—every hill, every valley, everymile of seashore. Within minutes of a disaster, they can give meteorologists acontext for weather data, and thus the ability to predict how toxic gases mightspread.
50_[n$tqE
The database forthis computer map is a series of altitude measurements, made over many years bythe Defense Department and the U.S. Geological Survey. They represent theheight above sea level of over a billion separate points—a grid of points 200feet apart, spanning the country. Armed with these data, plus a program thatmanipulates them, a Cray-1 computer can produce an image of any piece ofterrain, seen from any angle, illuminated by an imaginary sun at any time ofday placing the “observer” at any altitude from zero to 40,000 feet.
Ps!umV “We use atechnique called ray tracing,” says Patrick Weidhaas, one of the Livermorecomputer scientists who wrote the program. The computer is told where theobserver is. The program traces an imaginary ray from there outward until it “intersects”with one of the points of altitude recorded in the machine’s memory. Thecomputer then puts a dot of color at the proper place on the screen, and theprogram traces another ray.
J0V`
sK At its highestresolution of 2,000 horizontal and 1,700 vertical dots per picture, thecomputer has to trace several million rays, Even on the Cray, the most powerfulcomputer in the world, this takes about a minute. Reducing the resolution to400-800 (a TV screen has 80
0×700) speeds it up to abouteight seconds. “We can’t produce a movie simulating flight on the screen inreal time,” says Weidhaas. There is a way around the problem: Two movies havebeen made using still pictures generated by the computer as individual frames. “Theresults were impressive,” he says, “but it was cumbersome to do. At twenty-fourframes per second, it takes fourteen hundred separate computer images to make aone-minute film.” Another limitation: The computer can access only enoughmemory to cove a 15-mile-square area. An “observer” high up will see blankspaces beyond those limits.
\?Sv O Weidhaas wants to add information aboutwhat overlies the terrain—cities, vegetation, roads, and so on. “Making theimage as realistic as possible will make our advice more effective,” he says, “andmight lead to uses we haven’t thought of yet.”
m8@&-,T 26. As used in the first paragraph,
thrrainmost clearly means _______.
] )}a^]0q A.available information about the weather
o?Aj6f NY? B.surrounding land area
m g,1*B' C.blank spaces between the mountain ranges
Jsl2RdI D.amount of forest per square mile
GLgf%A`5/_ 27. Livermore’s computer map, in combination withweather reports, might be useful in predicting _____.
DQT'OZ :w A. the path of toxic gasesfrom a nuclear power plant explosion
s1q8r!2\w B.where incoming nuclear missiles might strike
\ ?pyax8 C.the average annual rainfall for North Dakota
D"J',YN$ D.the amount of pollution in the air
P #O2MiG 28. The information used by the computer tomake its detailed maps _______.
om`T/@_, I.was gathered by the Defense Department and the U.S. Geological Survey
t;BUZE_!0c II.shows points roughly 200 feet apart
rUpe ;c III.involves altitude measurements
h Ta(^ A.I B. I and II C. I and III D. I, II and III
lDTHK2f 29. Which of the following is the bestdescription of ray tracing?
=e4 r=I A.The computer simulates rays of the sun, filling in areas of light and shadow.
i|J %jA B. Linesradiate outward from the imagined observer and a dot of color is placed wherethe line intersects with one of the points of altitude in the machine’s memory.
/M_$4O;*@ C.X-rays are used to trace the outline of the terrain through buildings andtrees.
)\|+G5#` D. The exactmovement of rays is used by private detectives to solve mysteries and locatemissing persons.
nq)F$@ 30. Information about cities, vegetation,and road overlying the terrain ______.
PVsKI< A.has to be eliminated before correct readings can be obtained
*!%lBt{2 B.would be impossible to convert to data that a computer would accept.
fC[za,PXaE C.might lead to new applications and improve effectiveness of present uses
gxN>q4z D.would make ray tracing obsolete
@eJCr)#} Zz0e4C 3
Shoulddoctors ever lie to benefit their patients
—to speed recovery or to conceal the approach of death? In medicineas in law, government, and other lines of work, the requirements of honestyoften seem dwarfed by greater needs: The need to shelter from brutal news or touphold a promise of secrecy.
& 3BoK/y3 What shoulddoctors say, for example, to a 46-year-old man coming in for a routine physicalcheckup who, though he feels in perfect health, is found to have a form ofcancer? If he asks, should the doctor deny that he is ill, or minimize thegravity of the illness Doctors confront such choices often and urgently. Attimes, they see important reasons to lie for the patient’s own sake. In theireyes, such lies differ sharply from self-serving ones.
{%f{U"m Studies show that most doctors sincerely believe that the seriouslyill do not want to know the truth about their condition, and that informingthem risks destroying their hope, so that they may recover more slowly, ordeteriorate faster, perhaps even commit suicide. As one physician wrote: “Oursis a profession which traditionally has been guided by a precept thattranscends the virtue of uttering the truth for truth’s sake, and that is, asfar as possible ‘do no harm’.” Armed with such a precept a number of doctorsmay slip into deceptive practices that they assume will “do no harm” and maywell help their patients.
gv''A" But theillusory nature of the benefits such deception is meant to produce is nowcoming to be documented. Studies show that, contrary to the belief of manyphysicians, an overwhelming majority of patients do want to be told the truth,even about grave illness, and feel betrayed when they learn that they have beenmisled. We are also learning that truthful information, humanely conveyed,helps patients cope with illness.
L5-|-PP|; Notonly do lies not provide the “help” hoped for by advocates of benevolentdeception, they invade the autonomy of patients and render them unable to makeinformed choices concerning their own health.
);$99 t Liesalso do harms to those who tell them: harm to their integrity and, in the longrun, to their credibility. Lies hurt their colleagues as well. The suspicion ofdeceit undercuts the work of the many doctors who are scrupulously honest withtheir patients; it contributes to the spiral of lawsuits and of “defensivemedicine”, and thus it injures, in turn, the entire medical profession.
"j@\a)a 31. Who are most likely to lie for servingpurposes?
K]hp -QK< A.physicians B.surgeons
@ 1MnJP C.psychiatrists D.lawyers
CIjc5^Y2 32. Doctors think that lying to theirpatients is _______.
`7CK ;NeT A.a medical tradition B.to harm their own integrity
p49]{2GXb C.to defend medicine D.uttering the truth for truth’s sake
k, HC"?K 33. Most patients think that being told thetruth of their illness may ______.
rO' DT{Yt A.slow down recovery B.lead to suicide in some cases
=~B"8@B C.be too hard for them to accept D.help deal with illness
9;E=w+ 34. Which of the following statements isNOT true according to the author?
Y@Uk P+{f= A.Doctors are often in a dilemma as to tell the patient his real condition ofhealth.
0zaK&]oY0 B.Doctors’ reluctance to tell patient truth has no real support in reality.
S6TNu+2w4 C.Doctors’ lies are different from that of lawyers and government officials.
S#7YJ7
K"N D.Doctors and patients hold different views about telling truth.
9a}9cMJ^" 35. What is the author’s attitude towardsdoctors?
@^P^- B A.sarcastic B. praising C. objective D. appreciative
zLpCKndj Fx9-A8oIR 4
Chinatoday is home to 13 billion people—nearly one quarter of the world’spopulation. The growth of china’s population is largely the result ofmodernization, which has brought with it more food, better medical care, lessdisease, and fewer epidemics and famines. The death rate in China hasdecreased, and more children survive. The higher survival rate in China meansthat more people are entering childbearing age. This population growth wasthreatening to destroy China’s chances to become a richer country: justproviding food and basic necessities for everyone would consume all of itseconomic gains.
`(e :H Totame the explosive population growth, the Chinese government launched a drasticpolicy of allowing one child per family. To enforce this policy, the governmenthas a variety of incentives for those who comply and punishment for those whodo not. For example, couples who have only one child get a monthly pay untilthe child is fourteen, special consideration for scarce housing, free medicalcare, and extra pension benefits. The pressure to conform is powerful. Coupleswho ignore the state’s directive suffer social disgrace and economic penalties.
M:S-%aQ_<y Thefamily-planning policy, instituted in China in 1979, has been remarkablyeffective (though considerably more so in cities than in the countryside).Births to women of childbearing age have fallen dramatically
—to about 2.5 children for everywoman.
J ^'El^F China mayeventually succeed in balancing its population growth, but in doing so, it iscreating a new problem. The irony is that because of the very success of China’spopulation policy, the Chinese population is aging rapidly. In 1982, 5% of thepopulation was over age 64. In 2010, about 9% will be over 64, and in 2050, 25%will be. At the family level, children without brothers or sisters will eachhave to care for two aging parents. At the national level, the great numbers ofaging people will tax the society’s resources. China shares this problem
—a rapidly aging population withouta large enough following generation to support it
—with many of the developed nations of the world.
g
7 \ = 36. The primary purpose of this passage isto _______.
`o[l%I\Q A.predict the population problem in China.
Zf'*pp T&q B.explain why the family-planning policy is adopted in China
J2YQdCL C.illustrate the result of family-planning policy
kT% wt1T4 D.demonstrate the cause and effect of the family-planning policy
h051Ol\v* 37. According to the passage, all of the following arethe causes for the population explosion in China except ______.
a t: li A.better life B.decreased death rate
$> < /%S2g C.better education D. betterhealth
|>.Q U3 38. According to the passage, China is in apopulation dilemma in the sense that ______.
Shm> r@C? A.it is difficult to carry out the family-planning policy
}qNc `8h B.Chinese population will continue to increase rapidly in the near future
*l2`- gbE C.birth-rate decreases but the percentage of old people increases
j(;^XO Y# D.more old people survive in the society
p3Sh%=HE' 39. To punish those who violate the family-planningpolicy, the Chinese government does which of the following?
8v4}h9*F"7 A.Put them into prison. B. Fine thosecouples.
(]|h6aI'} C.Reduce their wages. D. Advisethem to observe the rule.
7]ieBUf S 40. All of the following can be inferredform the passage except that ______.
h9vcN#22D A.many developed nations suffer from the problem of a rapidly aging population
5xQ-f B.the family-planning policy meets more difficulty in the countryside than incities
18X @0e C.the increasing number of aged people is a result of the reduced birth-rate
Syk)S
< D.in the year of 2010 each child will have to look after one parent
S@qp_! -d ntV= 5
Americans hadalways been preoccupied with reforming their society; with “making it over,”and between the 1890s and the end of the First World War, the reform spiritintensified. More and more people tried to address the problem of their timedirectly, to impose order on a confusing world, and, especially, to create aconflict-free society. Their efforts, inspired by a complicated mixture ofcalculated self-interest and unselfish benevolence, helped what can be calledthe Progressive era. The urge for reform had many sources. Industrializationhad brought unprecedented productivity, awesome technology, and plenty ofconsumer goods. But it had also included labor struggle, waste of naturalresources, and abuse of corporate power. Rapidly growing cities facilitated theaccumulation and distribution of goods, services, and cultural amenities butalso magnified problems of poverty, disease, crime, and political corruption.Massive inflows of immigrants and the rise of a new class of managers andprofessionals shook the foundations of old social classes. And the depressionthat crippled the nation in the 1890s made many leading citizens realize whatworking people had known for some time: the central promise of American lifewas not being kept; equality of opportunity
—whether economic, political, or social
—was a myth.
=2Y;)wrF Progressivestried to resolve these problems by organizing ideas and actions around threebasic themes. First, they sought to end abuses of power. Second, progressivesaimed to replace corrupt power with the power of reformed institutions such asschools, charities, medical clinics, and the family. Third progressives wantedto apply principles of science and efficiency on a nationwide scale to alleconomic, social, and political institutions, to minimize social and economicdisorder and to establish cooperation, especially between business andgovernment, that would end wasteful competition and labor conflict.
$.G 7 Vt Befitting theirname, progressives had strong faith in the ability of humankind to create abetter world. More than ever before, Americans looked to government as an agentof the people that could and should intervene in social and economic relationsto protect the common good and substitute public interest for self-interest.
d2k-MZuT6 41. The passage is primarily concerned with
.
L b*KEF% s A. the reasons for the Progressive Movement
-yqsJGY B. the problems that American society facedbetween the 1890s and the end of World war = 1 \* ROMAN I
VF]AH}H8I C. the causes and contents of theProgressive reform
I>c,Bo7 D. the belief that Americans possessed intheir society
m'4f'tbN 42. All of the following can be inferredfrom the passage about the American society before the 1890s except that
.
$( h T{C,K A. there was little equal opportunity forgeneral Americans
*Gsj pNr- B. industry developed very rapidly
v2T2/y % C. thousands of people immigrated to theUnited States
NBikYxa D. economic depression did great harm toits development
IqOg{#
sm 43. The author believed that the remedy forthe social problems is
.
D3pz69W A. to stop the use of power
h Yu6PWK B. to establish more schools and medicalclinics
JA^o/%a^ C. to depend on government to make reforms
| ,8z" g D. to minimize the conflict between thelabor and capital
q=1 N&#R G 44. It can be inferred from the passagethat Progressives believed that
.
?gH[la A. the rate of industrial developmentshould be reduced
|tXA$}"L8 B. rapid growth of cities resulted mainlyfrom the massive immigration
q+P@2FL C. human beings are able to do anythingwell
}@DCc f$< D. government tended to protect thebusinesses rather than the masses
U82a]i0 45. It can be concluded from the passagethat the spirit of the progressive movement is the spirit
eP{srP3 9 .
AGBV7Kk A.
to end political corruption
`~1!nfFD B.
to minimize social and economicdisorder
_e%D/ } C.
to promote free competition
9A .RD`fg D.
to reform all the social evilsand problems
kY0HP a LoF/45|-< Ⅲ. Translation and Writing (55 points) 1wSAwpz PartA Translation %? ~'A59 Translatethe following into Chinese (30 points): s t'T._ 1.
Culture is the integratedpattern of human knowledge, belief, and behaviour. Culture thus definedconsists of language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions,tools, techniques, works of art, rituals, ceremonies, and other relatedcomponents; and the development of culture depends upon man’s capacity to learnand to transmit knowledge to succeeding generations.
2"/MM2s 8} /DD^M Every humansociety has its own particular culture, or sociocultural system, which overlapsto some extent with other systems. Variation among sociocultural systems isattributable to physical habitats and resources; to the range of possibilitiesinherent in various areas of activity, such as language, rituals and customs,and the manufacture and use of tools; and to the degree of social development. Adaptationand change take place within and among cultures by means of ecological andenvironmental changes.
W4$o\yA] ,67Q!/O 2.
Data base (or database): anycollection of data that is specially organized for rapid search and retrieval,usually by a computer. Databases are organized and integrated in such a way asto facilitate the accessing, manipulation, and deletion of data in conjunction withvarious data-processing operations.
E)b$;' bM W|:rn The informationin many databases consists of natural-language texts of documents. Informationis retrieved from these computerized records based on the presence in them ofwords or short phrases that are identical to those posed in the user’s query. Ina typical query, the user provides a sequence of characters, such as the titleof a journal or the name of a subject area, and the computer searches in thedatabase for a corresponding sequence of characters and provides the sourcematerials in which those characters appear. Queries are the principal means bywhich users retrieve database information.
8R~<$ xz O\}C`CiC Translatethe following into English (10 points): c:Ua\$)u3, 1"
'3/MFQ8 3. 摩天大楼、高速公路、小轿车和市场上品种繁多的家用电器，这一切都说明中国自1978年实行改革开放以来经历了深刻的变化—这是人们能够亲眼看见的变化。然而，在人们物质生活变化的背后，还有其他一些可能是具有更重要意义的变化。社会学家们发现，随着人们生活水平提高，传统的生活方式和观念也慢慢地发生了变化。社会学家们一直在关注这些变化，从家庭结构的演变到妇女社会地位的变化，从人们对婚姻的态度到消费观念的转变，还有收入水平的两极分化等，这些都成为社会学家们研究的课题。 !2!~_*sGe ns [/M~_r ?0qV yK_1 PartB Summary Writing (15 points) vHaM yA- Read thefollowing passage carefully and then write a summary of it in English in about120 words.
ct+F\:e pn" !wqg Europe was the first of the major worldregions to develop a modern economy based on commercial agriculture andindustrial development. Its successful modernization can be traced to the continent’srich endowment of economic resources, its history of innovations, the evolutionof a skilled and educated labour force, and the interconnectedness of all itsparts-both naturally existing and man-made—which facilitated the easy movementof massive quantities of raw materials and finished goods and the communicationof ideas.
=vThtl/azD {X, %GI Europe’s economic modernization began witha marked improvement in agriculture output in the 17
th century,particularly in England. The traditional method of cultivation involvedperiodically allowing land to remain fallow; this gave way to continuouscropping on fields that were fertilized with nature from animals raised as foodfor rapidly expanding urban markets. Greater wealth was accumulated bylandowners at the same time that fewer farmhands were needed to work the land. Theaccumulated capital and abundant cheap labour created by this revolution inagriculture fueled the development of the Industrial Revolution in the 18
thcentury.
]4~Yi1] >t+ ENYb The revolution vegan in northern England inthe 1730s with the development of water-driven machinery to spin and weave wooland cotton. By mid-century James Watt had developed a practical steam enginethat emancipated machinery from sites adjacent to waterfalls and rapids. Britainhad been practically deforested by this time, and the incessant demand for morefuel to run the engines led to the exploitation of coal as a major industry. Industrieswere built on the coalfields to minimize the cost of transporting coal overlong distances. The increasingly surplus rural population flocked to the newmanufacturing areas. Canals and other improvements in the transportationinfrastructure were made in these regions, which made them attractive to otherindustries that were not necessarily dependent on coal and thus prompteddevelopment in adjacent regions.
|3$E w. Y;w|Fv jj+ Industrialization outside of England beganin the mid-19
th century in Belgium and northeastern France andspread to Germany, the Netherlands, southern Scandinavia, and other areas inconjunction with the construction of railways. By the 1870s the governments ofthe European nations had recognized the vital importance of factory productionand had taken steps to encourage local development through subsidies and tariffprotection against foreign competition. Large areas, however, remainedvirtually untouched by modern industrial development, including most of theIberian Peninsula, southern Italy, and a broad belt of eastern Europe extendingfrom the Balkans on the south to Finland and northern Scandinavia. 4:MvC^X~z
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During the 20the century Europe hasexperienced periods of considerable economic growth and prosperity, andindustrial development has proliferated much more widely throughout thecontinent; but continued economic development in Europe has been handicapped toa large degree by its multinational character—which has spawned economicrivalries among states and two devastating world wars-as well as by theexhaustion of many of its resources and by increased economic competition fromoverseas. Governmental protectionism, which has tended to restrict thepotential market for a product to a single country, has deprived manyindustrial concerns of the efficiencies of large-scale production serving amass market (such as is found in the United States). In addition, enterpriseefficiency has suffered from government support and from a lack of competitionwithin a national market area. Within individual countries there have beengrowing tensions between regions that have prospered and those that have not. This“core-periphery” problem has been particularly acute in situations where thecontrasting regions are inhabited by different ethnic groups. GrF4*I` q
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