语法4

第三节副词在句中的位置

副词在句中的位置比较灵活，放在句首、句中、句尾都有可能，这是副词的优点，但同时给英语学习者带来了麻烦，往往难以抉择副词的位置，TOEFL出题者也借此大做文章，给考生制造障碍，在填空题、改错题中都涉及语序问题
几点参考规则：
1. 多数副词放在修饰的动词之后，若动词有宾语则放在宾语之后，如：
She sings very well.
I met your uncle(动词的宾语) just now.
I met just now your uncle (错)
2. 副词修饰形容词、介词短语、副词时常放在被修饰成分之前，如：
These two are only slightly different.
right after this, very smoothly
当然，副词enough是一个例外，要放在修饰成分的后面，如：
I am not good enough to do this job. (对)
I am not enough good to do this job. (错)
3. 表示频率的副词常放在实意动词之前，be动词之后，如：
He often/ always/ rarely/seldom/never play(实意动词) tennis.
He is always here at 8'clock. (be动词之后)
4. 部分副词的位置没有一定的规定，原则上接近被修饰词即可，如：
only, even, still, perhaps, etc.
例题：
(1)
When rainbows appear, they are always in the part of the sky opposite directly the
　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　　　　　B　　　C　　　　D
Sun.
答案：D
应改为：directly opposite.
解释：opposite 与the Sun 构成介宾短语, 修饰副词directly必须置于opposite之前
(2)
Amoebas are ---- small to be seen without a microscope.
(A) far too
(B) far and
(C) so far
(D) as far as
答案：A
解释：空格前是句子的主谓语，空格处需要small的修饰语，B, C, D都不能修饰形容词, 故选A, 由副词too修饰small，副词far用来加深程度

第四节容易混淆的词

hard (努力，副词) －hardly （几乎不，副词）
close （接近，形容词）－closely（接近，副词）
near （接近，形容词）－nearly （几乎，副词）， nearby (adj.邻近的)
most （大多数的，形容词）－mostly（主要地，大部分副词）
late （迟、晚，形容词）－lately （最近，副词），later(adv.稍后的)
high (高的，形容词) －highly (adv. 非常，大大的)
另外： friendly（友好的）， lovely(可爱的、有趣的)，尽管词尾有ly, 但是都是形容词
例题：
(1)
Chief Joseph La Flesche, a vigorous Omaha leader, worked hardly to make his nation
　　　　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　　　　　B
a proud and progressive one.
　　C　　　　　　　　D
答案：B
应改为：hard
解释：hard和hardly都是副词，前者表示努力地，后者表示几乎不，依据题意应改用hard
词汇：vigorous: 精力充沛的，progressive: 进步的
(2)
Glaciers that develop nearly the North and South Poles advance into the sea, break
　　　　　　　A　　B　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　C　　　　　D
into pieces, and become icebergs.
答案：B
应改为：near
解释：nearly是副词，意为几乎，在此句中讲不通，改为介词near才可与名词the North and South Poles构成地点状语
词汇：glacier: 冰河， iceberg: 冰山
(3)
Those electrons most closely to the nucleus are held there by electromagnetic force.
　A　　　　　　　B　　　　　　　　　　C　　D
答案：B
应改为：most close
解释：副词closely 不能修饰名词electrons, 应改为形容词, close to 构成形容词短语, 作electrons的后置定语
词汇：electron: 电子, electromagnetic: 电磁

第四章介词

介词在英语中有着举足轻重的地位，其数量不多，拼写也不复杂，但要准确的把握其用法却非易事，介词的恰当使用常常成为令英语学习者头疼的问题。TOEFL中常考知识点是动词后面到底跟不跟介词，常用介词搭配, 常用动词与介词搭配

第一节常用介词

考点一常用介词的用法
常用介词包括简单的，
如：in, on, at, from, to, like, of, for, after, before, by, with, to, since, between, etc.；
还有一些组合的，如：into, onto, out of, throughout, within, upon, etc.
这些词的具体用法需要下功夫搞清，在TOEFL题中都有所体现。
例题：
(1)
----one time, Manchester, New Hampshire, was the home of the most productive cotton mills in the world.
(A) On
(B) At
(C) By
(D) To
答案：B
解释：据选项可知需填介词，词组at one time意为“曾经、一度”，符合句意。
(2)
Saint Elmo's fire is a luminous blue discharge of electricity sometimes seen when a
　　　　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　B　　　　　　C　　　　　　D
thunderstorm.
答案：D
应改为：in.
解释：when是连词，一般只引导从句，应该用介词引导宾语

考点二及物动词和不及物动词
在改错题目中，经常会出现混淆及物动词和不及物动词，
(1) 不及物动词后面必须要加上介词，比如go Guangzhou（到广州去），这样表达是不对的，必须改为 go to Guangzhou
(2) 而及物动词后面不能随意加上介词，因为及物动词后面可以直接接名词
比如 find the mistake (寻找错误) ，不应该说 find for the mistake
例题：
(1)
What makes for human skeleton hard and strong is the presence of the metallic
　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　B　　　　　　　　C　　　　　　D
element calcium.
答案：A
应改为：human
解释：make是及物动词，直接加宾语，for是多余的
词汇：skeleton: 骨骼, metallic: 金属的, calcium: 钙
(2)
The situation comedy has proved to a remarkably durable commercial television
　　　　　　　　　A　　　　B　　　　　　　　　　　C　　　　　D
format.
答案：B
应改为：to be a / a.
解释：及物动词prove可直接加名词或不定式作宾语
词汇：situation comedy: 情景喜剧, durable: 持久的, format: 形式
第二节介宾短语
介词不能单独使用，而必须和其他词连用，这些词称作介词的宾语，它们共同构成的介宾短语常在句中作状语，作名词的后置定语，有时作某些动词的宾语补足语

考点一名词作介词宾语
大部分介词的宾语都是由名词(包括代词)充当的，如：under the tree, during the day, 这一考点在题中多次出现
例题：
(1)
The development of mechanical timepieces spurred the search for ----with which to regulate them.
(A) more accurate than sundials
(B) more accurate sundials
(C) sundials more accurately
(D) more accurately than sundials
答案：B
解释：search for缺少宾语, 只有B是表达无误的名词词组, 可以作宾语；其他选项的比较形式都有错。
(2)
Different species of octopuses may measure anywhere from two inches to over thirty
　　　　　A　　　　　　　　　　　　　　B　　　　　　　　　　C
feet in long.
答案：D
应改为：in length.
解释：long 是形容词, 不能单独接在介词之后, 其名词形式length与in构成介宾短语, 表示长度

考点二动名词作介词宾语
名词作宾语时，之后不能再接宾语，这一缺陷可由动名词弥补。
如：before doing the job , after getting back
改错题中常把应该用动名词作宾语的地方误用为名词或不定式，需留心陷阱

例题：
(1)
The Conestoga wagon, used for to carry heavy loads over long distances, originated
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　　B　　　　　　　　C
around 1725 in a region of Pennsylvania occupied by the Conestoga Indians.
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　D
答案：A
应改为：carrying.
解释：不定式不能作for的宾语, 改为动名词即可
(2)
Copper sulfate, spread in judicious amounts, kills algae ----harming fish or aquatic invert-ebrates.
(A) does not
(B) but does no
(C) except
(D) without
答案：D
解释：harming 是动名词形式, 因此要求前面的词是介词或可接动名词的动词. A B 可首先排除; C 虽是介词, 但与句意不符.
(3) Mary Ann Hardy was known for her skill to paint miniature watercolor portraits
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　B　　　　　　　C
on ivory.
Ｄ
答案：B
应改为：in painting
解释：后置定语修饰名词，什么方面的技能，不能用不定式。
考点三连接从句或不定式
介词之后还可以接宾语从句或不定式短语，但要借助于
连接代词 (如：what , which, whom)
或连接副词 (如：how, when，where)
例句： I knew nothing about how he got the green card.
She's pretty hesitant about which one to choose.
例题：
(1)
The Cubists were concerned with how----a given subject from different points of view simultaneously.
(A) represented
(B) do they represent
(C) to represent
(D) representing
答案：C
解释：介词with后面的宾语不完整, C 是不定式短语作宾语. A D都不足以和how构成宾语从句; B不应用疑问句语序, 若去掉do则是正确的
(2)
The scholarly interest in perception stems largely from questions about the sources and validity of what ----.
(A) it is known as human knowledge
(B) is known as human knowledge
(C) known human knowledge
(D) is human knowledge known
答案：B
解释：介词of的宾语残缺, B 构成宾语从句, 包含短语be known as；A多主语it; C 无法与what契合; D 语序错误
注意：介词后面不能够接 that 所引导的从句，除非in that连起来作为特殊的状语从句引导词，表原因
(3) (Exer1_21_31)
Soprano Julia Migenes-Johnson believes in that her Latin American background
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　B
helped her interpret the role of the Spanish character Carmen in a 1984 opera film.
　　　Ｃ　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　D
答案： A
应改为：believes
解释：介词后面一般不能够接that 引导的从句。除非in that连起来
(4)
Hovercraft, or air-cushion vehicles, are unusual ---- travel over land and water on a layer of air .
(A) they
(B) in they
(C) that they
(D) in that they
答案：D
解释：空格前是句子的主谓语，空格后是谓语结构，空格处需要从句引导词及从句主语，只有D符合题意，in that是特殊的状语从句引导词，表原因
词汇：hovercraft: 水翼船, cushion: 垫子

第三节介词固定搭配

介词和动词、形容词、名词等词的搭配是掌握介词用法的难点和关键，必须下大功夫牢记，TOEFL题中大量考察介词搭配问题，是准备的重点之一，下面对常见常考搭配稍作总结，可作复习的参考，但因篇幅所限，不可能面面俱到，还需考生多注意平时积累
一、常搭配使用的介词和介词短语
1. from…to /till /until
2. because of, on account of (由于), by means of, in front of, in spite of (=despite),
instead of, in honour of (为纪念，为庆祝)，in danger of (在….危险之中)
3. according to, due to, with regard to, prior to, owing to, , in relation to,
in response to, to a great extent, in addition to(=besides)
4. together with, along with, in connection with, in comparison with, apart from
二、与on /upon搭配
1. act on, rely on, depend on, feed on, comment on, concentrate on, rest on, in
2. be based on, be keen on, be dependent on
The boy is keen on mathematics. (这个男孩对数学感兴趣)
三、与of搭配
1. think of , consist of, take charge of
2. be composed of, be made up of, be capable of, be typical of,
regardless of, bare of, be deprived of
3. the use of, the ratio of…to, a minimum of
四、与with搭配
1. deal with, interfere with, compare with /to, share with, join with
2. be familiar with, familiarity with, be credited with, be associated with,
be concerned with, be filled with, be infused with, be consistent with
五、与in搭配
1. result in /from, succeed in, lie in, specialize in, originate in /from, live in, believe in
2. be interested in, be found in, be rich in, be involved in
六、与for搭配
1. account for, substitute for, look for, search for, run for (竞选), ask for
2. be suited for, be responsible for, be famous /known /noted for(因…..而著名)
be valuable for, be appreciated for
七、与to搭配
1. belong to, lead to, refer to, relate to, devote to, adapt to, adjust to, dedicate to, commit to,
owe to, do harm to, lead to, date back to, give way to, contribute to
2. be resistant to, be similar to, be equal to, be sensitive to, be subject to, be close to,
be native to, contrary to, be adapted to, be destined to (注定)
八、其他
1. range from…to, benefit from, distinguish…from , derive from, stem from,
break away from, protect from, prevent from, prohibit from, shield from
2. serve as, regard as, consider as, describe as, remember as, be known as,
3. transform…into, convert…into, change…into, divide…into,
4. rank among
例题：
(1)
The young of most bird species are totally dependence on parental care after
　　　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　B　　　　　C
hatching.
　　D
答案：B
应改为：dependent.
解释：be dependent on是固定词组, 意同depend on
(2)
Mary Cassatt specialized ----mothers with their children.
(A) painted
(B) who painted
(C) paintings
(D) in painting
答案：D
解释：此句涉及动词词组specialize in doing ,表示专门从事某事。A 与原句谓语冲突;B定语从句无先行词；C与空前后的成分都无法连接

the end.

第五章动词

动词是表达句意的精髓，句子的时态、语态等全依靠动词来体现。
动词可分为实意动词（如：go, do, make）、系动词（如：be, remain, seem）、助动词和情态动词（见第七章）
实意动词又可分为及物动词，即可接宾语的词，如：yield, resist, discover；和不及物动词，即不能直接接宾语的词，如：go, begin, happen。有很多词既是及物动词又是不及物动词，如：drop, grow, fail

第一节不定式
不定式是动词的非谓语形式，它的构成为：to+动词原形，to可视为不定式的标志词，两个动词常用to连接构成不定式。
不定式可以有多种形式，如：主动式（to drink, to see）、被动式（to be continued, to be understood）、完成式（to have completed, to have been adopted）、进行式（to be leaving）等
不定式在句中常作下列成分：

考点一不定式作宾语、主语或表语
1. 作宾语：不定式多接在谓语动词后作宾语
如：He decided to put in a good word for me at the meeting.
I didn't expect to hear from you so soon.
常用的可接不定式宾语的动词有：decide, expect, determine, offer, forget, remember, want, prefer, wish, hope, continue, begin, attempt, agree, etc.
例：Human beings are social animals who usually prefer not to live in physical or psychological isolation.
2. 作主语：不定式短语可作主语
如：To see is to believe (百闻不如一见)
　　　 To work hard should be your major concern.
注意：由于英文不习惯句子主语过长，不定式主语常被形式主语it所代替(详见第十七章)
例如上面第二句可以变为： It should be your major concern to work hard.
又如： It is very nice of you to help me.
It is hard for you to carry this heavy box.
3. 作表语：当句子的主语是purpose, aim, duty, goal, hope, plan, suggestion, idea, intention, problem, mistake, reaction等表示“意图”、“目的”、“功能”等意思的词时，一般由不定式作表语
如：His only purpose in life is to seek truth.
　　　 Our plan was to raise money for the new project.
例题：
(1)
Before the invention of the clock, people had to reliable on the celestial bodies to
A　　　　　　　　　　　B　　　　　　　　C
tell time.
　Ｄ
答案：C
应改为：rely.
解释：此处to是构成不定式的标志词, 之后应接动词原形
(2)
Chinese immigrants began ---- to the United States in large numbers in the middle of the nineteenth century.
(A) come
(B) to come
(C) to have come
(D) have come
答案：B
解释：空格处需要began的宾语，可以是动名词或不定式，A, D是动词原形，可先排除；C是不定式的完成式，不符合begin的用法；只有B正确
(3)
The central purpose of management is for making every action or decision help
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　　B
achieve a carefully chosen goal.
　Ｃ　　　Ｄ
答案：A
应改为：to make
解释：主语purpose决定应用不定式作表语，故改为to make

考点二不定式作定语
不定式常接在名词之后作定语，如：
something to read, nothing to do, anything to declare,
a lot to complain of, the right person to talk to, etc.
由上述例子不难看出不定式和被修饰词间有动宾关系，因此不及物动词之后必须加上相搭配的介词（例如上面的complain + of, talk +to）
不定式定语还可表示将来的含义，如：in the years to follow, the meeting to be held in June
针对TOEFL解题需注意下列情况：
1. 由序数词修饰的名词之后多用不定式作定语，
如：the first one to arrive, the last to mention, the only thing to talk about
例句：Not only was the Mariner spacecraft the first to fly beyond Mars, but it also survived in space well past its expected lifetime of twenty-one months.
2. 改错题常出现名词之后直接接动词，且二者间不是主谓关系而是动宾关系，此处必定有错，应在动词前加to，变为不定式作定语
如：Do you have anything declare (错)
Do you have anything to declare (对) （你有什么东西需要申报的吗？)
3. 少量题中出现了类似定语从句的不定式作定语，其基本形式为：介词+关系代词+不定式，如：Here is a blue pen, with which to fill out the form.
例题
(1)
An innovator, ballerina Augusta Maywood was ---- a traveling company.
(A) to form the first
(B) the first to form
(C) who formed the first
(D) forming the first
答案：B
解释：空格前是句子的主谓语, 空格处需要was的表语, first不能和a连用, 故A、C、D肯定不对; B中the first作表语, 省略了后面的person, 不定式to form…作定语, the first to do是常见用法, 表示第一个做某事的人

考点三不定式作状语
不定式作状语是相当普遍的语法现象，通常表示目的、结果或原因
如：I got an early morning to catch the first train to London. (表目的)
She raised the lid only to find an empty bottle. (表结果)
He trembled to think of his shameful failure. (表原因)
TOEFL种主要涉及第一种用法
例题：
(1)
Using their bills as needles, tailorbirds sew large leaves together with plant fiber
　　　　　A　　　　　　　　　　　　　　B　　　　　　　C　
to forming their nests.
　　Ｄ
答案：D
应改为：to form
解释：to是不定式的标志词，应接动词原形作目的状语
(2)
　The dromedary camel is raised especially to racing.
　A　　　　　　　B　　　　　　C　　　　D
答案：D
应改为：race
解释：此句中的to不是介词, 而是不定式的标志词, 之后应接动词原形作目的状语

考点四是否用不定式
1．有部分动词的习惯用法要求采用不定式复合结构，其基本形式为：动词+宾语+不定式，
如：enable him to dance, cause the little girl to cry,
consider it to be a great honor, imagine herself to a soprano
常接不定式复合结构的词有：allow, enable, cause, ask, expect, invite, advise, permit, oblige, help, encourage, persuade, instruct, command, urge, consider, believe, declare, etc.
注意：help既可以接不定式，也可以接动词原形（或称不带to的不定式），
如：help him to clean the lab, help me do the housework
例题：
(1)
The flexibility of film allows the artist ----unbridled imagination to the animation of cartoon characters.
(A) to bring
(B) bringing
(C) is brought
(D) brings
答案：A
解释：allow somebody to do sth.属于固定动词词组搭配,
若allow之后无宾语则用allow doing 的形式。
例: Mum doesn't allow me to eat too much chocolate.
Sorry, sir, but we don't allow smoking here.
(2)
A dictionary allows quick access to the meaning of a word only if one knows how
　　　　　　　　　　A　　　　　　　B　　　　　　　C　　　　　　D
spell the word.
答案：D
应改为：how to spell
解释：how和spell不能连用，应变为不定式复合结构，加上to, 构成know的宾语
2. 在一些表示“意图”、“目的”、“倾向”等意思的动词、形容词后面经常要跟不定式，而表示同样意思的名词后面经常需要用不定式做定语
例句：
Having lost the election, the presidential candidate intend to support the opposition despite the objections of his staff.
Many modern photographers attempt to manipulate elements of photography other than light in their photographs.
这样的动词还有tend, plan, expect, endeavor, try, wish等
He is anxious to go home.
I am inclinded to work in Shanghai.
这样的形容词还有able, apt, eager, glad, ready, likely等
A loan may be acknowledged by a bond , a promissory note, or a mere promise to repay.
He has the inclination to grow fat.
这样的名词还有ablility , effort , attempt, anxiety,determination, inclination, plan 等
例题：
(1)
Billie Holiday's reputation as a great jazz-blues singer rests on her ability ----emotional depth to her songs.
(A) be giving
(B) are given
(C) being given
(D) to give
答案：D
解释：此句主谓俱全, 主语reputation, 谓语rests on, 缺少宾语ability的修饰成分. 根据谓语唯一原则可首先排除A B； C是被动式, 后面不能有宾语, 亦可排除; D为不定式作定语, the ability to do即做某事的能力

第二节分词

分词是动词的又一种非谓语形式，主要分为现在分词（ing为词尾）和过去分词（主要以ed结尾），他们在句中可作定语、状语或表语。
由于作表语的分词往往被视为形容词的用法，其用法比较简单，这里只着重介绍前两种用法如：
exciting news (激动人心的消息), charming girl(迷人的女孩),
promising work(有希望的作品), known criminal(臭名昭著的罪犯),
broken bottle（破碎的瓶子）

考点一现在分词
现在分词和过去分词的主要区别在于：现在分词表主动意义；过去分词表被动意义。
现在分词较过去分词形式灵活，除部分能接宾语之外，可有被动形式(being done)和完成式(having done, having been done), 当然being done和having been done也可理解成过去分词变形为进行式
1. 现在分词作定语
现在分词常接在名词之后作定语，经常可与定语从句替换
如：the man sitting behind me, 相当于：the man who is sitting behind me
the kids running about in the garden, 相当于：
the kids who are running about in the garden
单个的分词作定语可放在被修饰词之前，如：the sleeping baby, a running nose
改错题中若出现名词之后直接接动词，且之间是主谓关系，但不是句子主谓语，此处必定有错，可改为现在分词作定语
例题：
(1)
The boiled point of any liquid is determined by the pressure of the surrounding gases.
　　　A　　　　　　　B　　　　C　　　　　　D
答案：A
应改为：boiling.
解释：沸点的英文表达应该是boiling point. 类似的表达如: boiling water(沸水); boiled表示已完成的状态, 如boiled water意为白开水, 即已沸腾过的水
(2)
The slide rule uses sliding scales with marks ---- numbers and their logarithms.
(A) representing
(B) represented
(C) are represented
(D) they are representing
答案：A
解释：空格前是句子的主谓成分，空格处需要marks的定语，C, D可先排除；B是被动式，无法接宾语numbers; 因此A正确，是现在分词作定语
2. 现在分词作状语
分词还可在句中作状语，可放在句首、句中或句尾。现在分词作状语时，通常都表示主语正在进行的动作/伴随动作或者表示原因。
1．现在分词短语可以作时间状语，相当于when, while, as soon as等所引导的从句
如：Hearing the news, he couldn't help crying.
= When he heard the news, he couldn't help crying.
2．现在分词短语也可以表示原因，代替由since, as等所引导的从句
如：Not knowing what to do about the situation, she turned to him for help.
=Since she didn't know what to do about the situation, she turned to him for help.
Being so poor in those days, we couldn't afford to go to school.
=As we were so poor in those days, we couldn't afford to go to school.
3．如果分词表示的动作发生在主句动作之前，那么此时分词就需要用完成形式
如：Having finished the work, she went to the park.
=After she had finished the work, she went to the park.
特别注意：分词状语的逻辑主语和句子的主语要保持一致
如: Seeing from the moutain, the ocean is emrald green.
此句是一个错误的句子, 因为根据分词状语的逻辑主语和句子的主语要保持一致的原则, seeing的逻辑主语也应该是the ocean, 而the ocean是不能自己seeing的, 应改为Seen from the mountain.
例题：
(1)
Snow aids farmers by keeping heat in the lower ground levels, thereby ---- from freezing.
(A) to save the seeds
(B) saving the seeds
(C) which saves the seeds
(D) the seeds saved
答案：B
解释：thereby一词习惯上接现在分词作句子的结果状语，只有B符合要求

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