北京师范大学2007英语试题

2007

=1 \* ROMAN I Listening Comprehension
Section A
Directions: In this section, you will hearfive short talks. At the end of each talk, you will hear some questions. Boththe talks and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question,you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A, B, C and D.Then mark the corresponding letter on the ANSWER SHEET with a single linethrough the centre.

1. A. They are looking for thenews in that journal.
B. They do notunderstand the news.
C. The newsstandprobably has the journal.
D. They areexpecting a new journey.
2.    A.She has changed her major to economics.
       B.she majors in business administration now.
       C.She has studied business administration for three years.
       D.she does not want to major in business administration.
3.    A.She bought a carpet and a cleaner.
       B.Someone cleaned Ann’s carpet.
       C.Ann purchased a product for cleaning her carpet.
       D.The carpet was cleaned at the supermarket.
4.    A.Mr. Brown was at home.
       B.Mr. Brown was in the office.
       C.Mr. Brown was caught out of town.
       D.Mr. Brown was on a business trip.
5.    A.Hardly anybody here speaks frankly.
       B.Take a different route to get where you are going.
       C.We have asked everyone to form a straight line.
       D.The questions are complicated, but there is only one right answer.

Section B
Directions: In this section, you will hearthree short talks. At the end of each talk, you will hear some questions. Boththe talks and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear aquestion, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A, B, Cand D. Then mark the corresponding letter on the ANSWER SHEET with a singleline through the centre.
Question 6-8 are based on the talk you havejust heard.
6. On what occasions should you say “Congratulations!”?
       A.When somebody offers apologies to you.
       B.When someone tells an exciting story to you.
       C.When somebody is in an extremely happy occasion.
       D.When people have completed something successfully.
7. What does R.S.V.P .in an invitation mean?
       A.Response very promptly.
       B.Response very punctually.
       C.Response, please.
       D.Response very politely.
8. What are the two main uses of “I’m sorry”according to the speaker?
       A.To express one’s sympathy and regret to someone.
       B.To express one’s gratitude to someone.
       C.To express one’s opinion to someone.
       D.To express one’s anger to someone.

Question 9-11 are based on the talk youhave just heard.
9. What is the movie Soylent Green about?
       A.The population of New York Cityin the year 2022.
       B.The life in New York Cityin the year 2022.
       C.The ocean plant-soylent.
       D.The food and housing problems in the future.
10. What is the soylent yellow and red madeof?
       A.Ocean plants.
       B.Crackers.
       C.Soybeans.
       D.Tomatoes.
11. What might be the main reason of this “scaringreality” according to the speaker?
       A.The gap between the rich and the poor.
       B.The housing shortage in big cities like New  York.
       C.The limited job opportunities in New  York City.
       D.The expansion of big cities and large population.

Question 12-15 are based on the talk youhave just heard.
12. Which room does the guest stay?
       A.240                  B. 250                   C. 214                   D. 213
13. What does the guest want to borrow?
       A.Ten dollars.
       B.An iron.
       C.A laundry bag.
       D.The newspaper.
14. What is particularly wrong with theair-conditioner?
       A.It bothers the guest.
       B.It makes the room too cool to stay in.
       C.It doesn’t work at all.
       D.It doesn’t cool the room very much.
15. Where can the hotel guest get a foreignnewspaper?
       A.In the reception.
       B.In the housekeeping office.
       C.In the gift shop of the lobby.
       D.In the hotel lobby.

II. Reading Comprehension (25 points)
Directions: There are five passages in thispart. Each of the passages is followed by five questions or unfinishedstatements. For each of them there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choosethe best one and mark your answer on the ANSWER SHEET with a single linethrough the center.

There is a newtype of small advertisement becoming increasingly common in newspaperclassified columns. It is sometimes placed among “situations vacant”, althoughit does not offer anyone a job; and sometimes it appears among “situationswanted”, although it is not placed by someone looking for a job either. What itdoes is to offer help in applying for a job.
“Contact usbefore writing application”, or “Make use of our long experience in preparingyour curriculum vitae, or job history”, is how it is usually expressed. Thegrowth and apparent success of such a specialized service is , of course, areflection on the current high levels of unemployment. It is also, anindication of growing importance of the curriculum vitae.(or job history), withthe suggestion that it may now qualify as an art form in its own right.
There was a timewhen job seekers simply wrote letters of application. “Just put down your name,address, age and whether you have passed any exams”, was about the averagelevel of advice offered to young people applying for their first jobs when Ileft school. The letter was really just for openers, it was explained. Everythingelse could and should be saved for the interview. And in those days of fullemployment the technique worked. The letter proved that you could write andwere available for work. Your eager face and intelligent replies did the rest.
Later, as youmoved up the ladder, something slightly more sophisticated was called for. Theadvice then was to put something in the letter which would distinguish you fromthe rest. It might be the aggressive approach.” your search is over. I am theperson you are looking for,” was a widely used trick that occasionallysucceeded. Or it might be some special feature special feature speciallydesigned for the job in view.
There is nodoubt, however, that it is the increasing number of applicants with universityeducation at all points in the process of engaging staff that has led to thegreater importance of the curriculum vitae.
16. The new type of advertisement which isappearing in newspaper columns .
A. informs job hunters of the opportunitiesavailable
B. promises useful advice to those lookingfor employment
C. divides available jobs into varioustypes
D. informs employers that people areavailable for work.
17. Nowadays a demand for this specializedtype of service has been created because .
A. there is lack of jobs available forartistic people
B. there are so many top-level jobsavailable
C. there are so many people out of work
D. the job history is considered to be awork of art .
18. In the past it was expected thatfirst-job hunters would .
A. write an initial letter giving theirlife history
B. pass some exams before applying for ajob
C. have no qualifications other than beingable to read and write
D. keep any detailed information until theyobtained an interview
19. Later, as one went on to apply moreimportant jobs, one was advised to include in the letter
.
A. something that would attract attentionto one’s application
B. a personal opinion about theorganization one was trying to join
C. something that would offeredthat person reading it
D. a lie that one could easily getwith telling
20. The job history has become such animportant document because .
A. there has been a decrease in the numberof jobs advertised
B. there has been an increase in the numberof “qualified” job hunters
C. jobs are becoming much more complicatednowadays
D. the other processes of applying for jobsare more complicated

       Pitythose who aspire to put the initials PhD after their names. After 16 years ofclosely supervised education, prospective doctors of philosophy are left moreor less alone to write the equivalent of a large book. Most social-sciencepostgraduates have still not completed their theses by the time their grantruns out after three years. They must then get a job and finish in their sparetime, which can often take a further three years. By then , most new doctorsare sick to death of the narrowly defined subject which has blighted theirholidays and ruined their evenings.
       TheEconomic and Social Research Council, which gives grants to postgraduate socialscientists, wants to get better value for money by cutting short this agony. Itwould like to see faster completion rates: until recently, only about 25% ofPhD candidates were finishing within four years. The ESRC’s response has beento stop PhD grants to all institutions where the proportion taking less thanfour years is below 10%; in the first year of this policy the national averageshot up to 39%. The ESRC feels vindicated in its toughness, and willprogressively raise the threshold to 40% in two years. Unless completion ratesimprove further, this would exclude 55 out of 73 universities andpolytechnics-including Oxford University, the London School of Economics andthe London Business School.
       Predictably,howls of protest have come from the universities, who view the blacklisting ofwhole institutions as arbitrary and negative. They point out that many of thebest students go quickly into jobs where they can apply their research skills,but consequently take longer to finis their theses. Polytechnics with as few astwo PhD candidates complain that they are penalized by random fluctuations instudent performance. The colleges say there is no hard evidence to prove thatfaster completion rates result from greater efficiency rather than lowerstandards or less ambitious doctoral topics.
       TheESRC thinks it might not be a bad thing if PhD students were more modest intheir aims. It would prefer to see more systematic teaching of research skillsand fewer unrealistic expectations placed on young men and women who areundertaking their first piece of serious research. So in future its grants willbe given only where it is convinced that students are being trained asresearchers, rather than carrying out purely knowledge-based studies.
       TheESRC can not dictate the standard of thesis required by external examiners, orforce departments to give graduates more teaching time. The most it can do isto try to persuade universities to change their ways. Recalcitrant professorsshould note that students want more research training and a less elaboratestyle of thesis, too.
21. By time new doctors get a job and tryto finish their theses in spare time, .
A. most of them died of some sickness
B. their holidays and evenings have beenruined by their jobs
C. most of them are completely tired of thenarrowly defined subject
D. most of their grants run out
22. Oxford University would be excluded outof those universities that receive PhD grants from ESRC, because the completionrate of its PhD students’ theses within four years is lower than
.
A. 25%                        B.40%                        C. 39%                        D. 10%
23. All the following statements are thearguments against ESRC’s policy except       .
A. all the institutions on the blacklistare arbitrary and negative
B. there is no hard evidence to prove thatfaster completion rates result from greater efficiency rather than lowerstandards or less ambitious doctoral topics.
C. many of the best students go quicklyinto jobs where they can apply their research skills, but consequently takelonger to finish their theses.
D. some polytechnics are penalized byrandom fluctuations in student performance
24. The ESRC would prefer .
A. that the students were carrying outpurely knowledge-based studies rather than being trained as researchers.
B. to see higher standards of PhD students’theses and more ambitious doctoral topics
C. more systematic teaching of researchskills to fewer unrealistic expectations placed on inexperienced young PhDstudents.
D. that PhD students were less modest intheir aims
25. what the ESRC can do is to .
A. force departments to give graduates moreteaching time
B. try to persuade universities to changetheir ways
C. dictate the standard of thesis requiredby external examiners
D. note that students want more researchtraining and less elaborate style of thesis

       Influenzashould not be dismissed as a trivial disease. It kills thousands of peopleevery year at a very high cost to the economy, hits hardest the young and theelderly, and is most dangerous for people over the age of 65. influenza ismainly a seasonal illness of the winter months, though in tropical andsubtropical areas of Asia and the Pacific it can occur all the year round.
       Thedamaging effects of influenza can be prevented by immunization, but constantchanges of antigenic specificity of the virus necessitate a differentcomposition of the vaccine from one year to another. The network of WHO CollaboratingCenters for Influenza and national institutes carries out influenzasurveillance activities to monitor the evaluation of influenza virus strains,and WHO hold an annual consultation at the end of February to recommend thecomposition of the vaccine for the forthcoming epidemiological season. Theserecommendations are published immediately in the Weekly epidemiological record.
       Vaccinationeach year against influenza is recommended for certain high-risk populations. Inclosed or semi-closed settings, maximum benefit from immunization is likely tobe achieved when more than three-quarters of the population are vaccinated sothat the benefit of “herd immunity” can be exploited. Special care should betaken of the following groups:
       --adultsand children with chronic disorders of the pulmonary or cardiovascular systemsrequiring regular medical follow-up or who had been hospitalized during theprevious year, including children with asthma;
       --residentsof nursing homes and other establishments for patients of any age with chronicmedical conditions;
       --allpeople over the age of 65.
       Physicians,nurses, and other personal in primary and intensive care units, who arepotentially capable of transmitting influenza to high risk persons, should beimmunized; visiting nurses and volunteer workers providing home care tohigh-risk persons should also be included.
26. This passage .
A. concerns the damaging effects ofinfluenza
B. mentions the steps of fighting againstthe harmful effects of influenza
C. emphasizes the worry expressed by allage groups
D. both A and B
27. That a different component part of thevaccine is necessary is principally due to the variable change of .
A. virus                 B.strain                C. antigen              D. immunization
28. Which has been done by World HealthOrganization in combating the bad effects of influenza?
A. supervising the assessment of influenzavirus strains.
B. Holding meetings twice a year to providethe latest data concerning the composition of the vaccines.
C. Publishing the related information in aWHO almanac.
D. Stressing the importance of preventinginfluenza for people living in tropical areas of Asia.
29. According to the passage, high-riskpersons exclude which of the following kinds of people ?
A. Children suffering from asthma.
B. The elderly with chronic pulmonarydiseases.
C. Middle aged people with chronic heartdiseases.
D. Nurses taking special care of the sick.
30. In which of the following publicationswould this passage most likely be printed?
A. A surgery book.
B. A psychology book
C. An epidemiology book.
D. An obstetrics book

Inscience the meaning of the word “explain” suffers with civilization’s everystep in search of reality. Science can not really explain electricity,magnetism, and gravitation; their effects can be measured and predicted, but oftheir nature no more is known to the modern scientist than to Thales who firstspeculated on the electrification of amber. Most contemporary physicists rejectthe notion that man can ever discover what these mysterious forces “really”are. Electricity, Bertrand Russell says, “is not a thing, like St. Paul’sCathedral; it is a way in which things behave. When we have told how thingsbehave when they are electrified, we have told all thee is to tell.” Untilrecently scientists would have disapproved of such an idea. Aristotle, forexample, whose natural science dominated Western thought for two thousandyears, believed that man could arrive at an understanding of reality byreasoning from self-evident principles. He felt, for example, that it is aself-evident principle that everything in the universe has its proper place,hence one can conclude that objects fall to the ground because that is wherethey belong, and smoking goes up because that is where it belongs. The goal of Aristotelianscience was to explain why things happen. Modern science was born when Galileobegan trying to explain how things happen and thus originated the method ofcontrolled experiment which now forms the basis of scientific investigation.
31. The aim of controlled scientificexperiments is .
A. to explain why things happen
B. to explain how things happen
C. to describe self-evident principles
D. to support Aristotelian science
32. what principles most influencedscientific thought for two thousand years?
A. The speculations of Thales
B. The forces of electricity, magnetism,and gravity
C. Aristotle’s natural science
D. Galileo’s discoveries
33. Bertrand Russell’s notion aboutelectricity is .
A. disapproved of by most modern scientists
B. in agreement with Aristotle’s theory ofself-evident principles
C. in agreement with scientificinvestigation directed toward “how” things happen
D. in agreement with scientificinvestigation directed toward “why ” things happen
34. The passage says that until recentlyscientists disagreed with the idea .
A. that there are mysterious forces in theuniverse
B. that man can not discover what forces “really”are
C. that there are self-evident principles
D. that we can discover why things behaveas they do
35. Which of the following is the topicmost likely to be discussed right after the passage?
A. The most recent definition of “explain”
B. The relationship between science andreligion
C. The limitations of science
D. Galileo and the birth of modern science.

       Someweeks ago, riding in a cab from Boston to Cambridge, my driver turned and askedme what I did for a living . “Teach English”, I said. “Is that so? ” The youngman continued. “I was an English major” But then, instead of chatting idlyabout Joyce or dropping the subject altogether, this driver caught me short. “Youguys,” he said, turning back so that his furry face pressed into the glasspartition, “ought to be shot” I think he meant it .
       Theguilty party in this present state of affairs is not really the academicdiscipline. It is not the fault of English and philosophy and biology thatengineering and accounting and computer science afford students better jobopportunities and increased flexibility in career choice. Literature and anunderstanding of, say, man’s evolutionary past are as important as ever. Theysimply are no longer perceived in today’s market as salable. That is a harsheconomic fact. And it is not only true in the United States. Employmentprospects for liberal arts graduates in Canada, for example, are said to be theworst since the 1930s.
       Whatto do? I think it would be shortsighted for colleges and universities to advisestudents against majoring in certain subjects that do not appear linked (atleast directly) to careers. Where our energies should be directed instead istoward the development of educational programs that combine course sequences inthe liberal arts with course in the viable professions. Double majors---one forenrichment, one for earning one’s bread---have never been promoted veryseriously in our institutions of higher learning, mainly because liberal artsand professional-vocational faculties have long been suspicious or contemptuousof one another. Thus students have been directed to one path or the other, tothe disadvantage of both students and faculty.
       Ahopeful cue could be taken, it seems to me, from new attempts in the healthprofession(nursing and pharmacy, for example), where jobs are still plentiful,to give the humanities and social sciences a greater share of the curriculum. Whycould not the traditional history major in the college of arts and sciences bepointed toward additional courses in the business school, or to engineering, orto physical therapy? This strategy requires a new commitment from both theinstitution and the student and demands a much harder look at the allocation oftime and resources. But in an age of adversity, double majors are one wayliberal arts students can more effectively prepare for the world outside.
36. What is the chief purpose of doublemajors?
A. To help graduates of history majorbecome successful businessmen.
B. To provide liberal arts graduates with amethod of meeting effectively the challenge in employment.
C. To extend their knowledge learnt in thecollege.
D. To moderate the tension between liberalarts and vocational faculties.
37. In paragraph 1, the sentence “You guysought to be shot” shows that at heart the driver .
A. felt greatly regretted about the majorhe had chosen
B. felt a deep hatred for all the Englishteachers in his former college
C. complained that his teachers hadn’ttaught him how to survive in this competitive society.
D. held a deep contempt in the authorbecause of his scholastic manner
38. It can be inferred from the passagethat the blame for the present state of affairs lies in the fact that .
A. the course sequences themselves areunreliable.
B. more and more students start to selectscience majors
C. almost none of the specialties thestudents major in might be salable in today’s market
D. the opportunities of employment arescarce for graduates of non-science majors
39. The obstacles in course sequences inacademic schooling are indicated in all of the following EXCEPT .
A. the misguidance of major-selection insome of the institutions of higher learning
B. the current curriculum couldn’t keep upwith the development of the society
C. the inharmonious relation among theteaching faculties
D. the authorities of higher learningattach only little importance to course sequences
40. This passage can best be titled as .
A. Harsh Economic Fact
B. Double Majors, a Way Out
C. Careers, Schooling fro Better
D. Market for Graduates

       Doesan unborn baby know his mother’s voice? psychology professor Anthony DeCasperadvised an ingenious experiment to find out. He placed padded earphones over anewborn’s ears and gave him a bottle nipple attached to a closed rubber tube. Changesin pressure in the tube switched channels on a tape recorder. If the babypaused extra long between bursts of sucking, he heard on channel; if he pausedshorter than average, he heard the other. The baby now had the ability, ineffect to change channels.
       DeCasperfound that newborns choose the recording of their mother’s voice over that ofanother woman’s. The baby, however, has no innate interest in his father’svoice, which is heard in the womb only from time to time, while the mother’svoice is ever present. Within two weeks after birth, however, the baby canrecognize Dad’s voice too.
      Anewborn is even attuned to the cadence and rhythm of his native language. In aFrench study using a setup similar to DeCasper’s, French babies given thechoice between French and Russian words responded more to the sound of French.
       BrianSatt, a research specialist in clinical psychology, has parents sing alullaby-like “womb song” to their babies. The unborn baby often develops aspecific, consistent movement pattern when its song is sung. According to Satt,most parents can calm a fussy newborn with the song most of the time, which isa prize worth more than rubies to a new parent.
       Heis roused by a heavy jolt. His mother has tripped and fallen heavily on onehip. He is much too well cushioned to experience any injury, but her pain and thefear that she may have hurt him floods both their bodies with adrenaline andother stress-related hormones. He cries and kicks vigorously, a cry never heardbecause there is no air to make sound. As she recovers the stress hormones ebbaway, and he calms down too.
41. Which of the following is NOT mentionedabout the unborn baby in the passage?
A. An unborn baby can occasionally hear hisfather’s voice.
B. Dc. Casper’s approach proved absolutelyeffective in a French experiment.
C. An unborn baby is able to identify thetone and rhythm of his native language.
D. Parents are able to soothe a fussynewly-born baby.
42. According to the author, an unborn baby .
A. is unable to identify his mother’slullaby after birth
B. is able to identify his mother’s voicerather than that of others’
C. is able to help release adrenaline andother stress-related hormones
D. is able to distinguish French accentfrom Russian accent
43. It is known from the passage that .
A. mother’s stress, anger, shock or griefmight not hurt the unborn baby in the womb
B. an unborn baby’s cry might never beheard because of the particular condition of the womb.
C. lullabies are the most precious means toyoung parents
D. an unborn baby has to move at intervalsin the womb
44. The author believes that the reactionof an unborn baby to his mother’s voice .
A. belongs to one of the natural tendencies
B. is an indication which shows an unbornbaby can use all his senses after birth
C. is but a physiological circulation ofany human being
D. is the most important factor which leadsan unborn baby to the survival in the womb
45. It can be assumed that the paragraphpreceding the passage most probably discussed .
A. the development of the baby in hismother’ s womb
B. the well-developed taste buds of thebaby
C. the fact that the baby remainsmotionless just as what he performs in the first month of his mother’spregnancy
D. the fact that the baby can start to usesome of his senses by the last few weeks of pregnancy

Ⅲ. Translation and Writing (55 points)
PartA Translation
Translatethe following into Chinese (30 points):

Engineering isthe professional art of applying science to the optimum conversion of theresources of nature to the uses of humankind. Engineering has been defined asthe creative application of “scientific principles to design or developstructures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizingthem singly or in combination.” The term engineeringis sometimes more loosely defined, especially in Great Britain, as themanufacture or assembly of engines, machine tools, and machine parts.
Associated with engineeringis a great body of special knowledge; preparation for professional practiceinvolves extensive training in the application of that knowledge. The functionof the scientist is to know, while that of the engineer is to do. The scientistadds to the store of verified, systematized knowledge of the physical world;the engineer brings this knowledge to bear on practical problems. Engineeringis based principally on physics, chemistry, and mathematics and theirextensions into materials science, solid and fluid mechanics, thermodynamics,and systems analysis.

Although for thepurpose of this article English literature is treated as being confined towritings in English by natives or inhabitants of the British Isles, it is to acertain extent the case that literature---and this is particularly true of theliterature written in English---knows no frontiers. Thus, English literaturecan be regarded as a cultural whole of which the mainstream literatures of the UnitedStates, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada and important elements in theliteratures of other commonwealth countries are parts. It can be argued that nosingle English novel attains the universality of the Russian writer Leo Tolstoy’sWar and Peace. Yet in the Middle agesthe Old English literature was influenced and gradually changed by the Latinand French writings, eminently foreign in origin in which the churchmen and theNorman conquerors expressed themselves. From this combination emerged aflexible and subtle linguistic instrument exploited by Geoffrey Chaucer andbrought to supreme application by William Shakespeare.

Translatethe following into English (10 points):
从二十世纪中叶起，名国政府对科学技术的重视引起了各级教育机构的响应，理论科学和应用科学的巨大进步也激起了人们学习自然科学的兴趣，科学技术因此有了飞速的发展。但与此同时，人们忽视了对人文科学和社会科学的学习，公民对道德观念和社会准则在生活中的意义缺乏认识。这在一定程度上导致了以下后果：地方、民族和国际间的暴力冲突层出不穷，环境污染日益严重，这些都给人类生活带来了危险。因此，在教育中应纠正重理轻文的倾向，在生活中恢复人文主义的价值，以求物质文明和精神文明的平衡发展。

PartB Summary Writing (15 points)
Read thefollowing passage carefully and then write a summary of it in English in about120 words.
Developments in19^th century Europe are bounded by two great events. The FrenchRevolution broke out in 1789, and its effects reverberated throughout much of Europefor many decades. World War =1 \* ROMAN I began in 1914. Its inception resulted from many trends in Europeansociety, culture, and diplomacy during the late 19^th century. Inbetween these boundaries---the one opening a new set of trends, the otherbringing long-standing tensions to a head---much of modern Europe was defined.
Europe duringthis 125-year span was both united and deeply divided. A number of basiccultural trends, including new literary styles and the spread of science, ranthrough the entire continent. European states were increasingly locked indiplomatic interaction, culminating in continentwide alliance system after1871. At the same time, this was the century of growing nationalism, in whichindividual states jealously protected their identities and indeed establishedmore rigorous border controls than ever before. Finally, the European continentwas to an extent divided between two zones of differential development. Changessuch as the Industrial Revolution and political liberalization spread first andfastest in western Europe---Britain, France, the Low Countries, Scandinavia,and, to an extent, Germany and Italy. Eastern and southern Europe, more ruralat the outset of the period, changed more slowly and in somewhat differentways.
Europe witnessedimportant common patterns and increasing interconnections, but thesedevelopments must be assessed in terms of nation-state divisions and, evenmore, of larger regional differences. Some trends, including the ongoing impactof the French Revolution, ran through virtually the entire 19^thcentury. Other characteristics, however, had a shorter life span.
Some historiansprefer to divide 19^th century history into relatively small chunks. Thus1789-1815 is defined by the French Revolution and Napoleon; 1815-48 forms aperiod of reaction and adjustment; 1848-71 is dominated by a new round ofrevolution and the unifications of the German and Italian nations; and1871-1914, an age of imperialism, is shaped by new kinds of political debateand the pressures that culminated in war. Overriding these important markers,however, a simpler division can also be useful. Between 1789 and 1849 Europedealt with the forces of political revolution and the first impact of the IndustrialRevolution. Between 1849 and 1914 a fuller industrial society emerged,including new forms of states and of diplomatic and military alignments. Themid-19^th century, in either formulation, looms as a particularlyimportant point of transition within the extended 19^{th century. }h=PW'M{
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