华东政法大学——英语2003年博士研究生入学考试试题

华东政法大学——英语2003年博士研究生入学考试试题

华东政法学院2003年博士研究生入学考试

英语试卷

PART I LISTENING COMPREHENSION 10% [15 MIN.]

In Sections A and B you will hear everything ONCE ONLY. Listen carefully and then answer the questions that follow. Mark the correct answer to each question on your answer sheet.

SECTION A STATEMENT (5%)

In this section you will hear nine statements. At the end of each statement you will be given 10 seconds to answer the question.

1. The speaker likes teaching because of

A. its interesting nature. B. the good salaries.

C. contact with the young. D. more summer holidays.

2. What does the speaker mean?

A. Bad living conditions are due to the poor city.

B. Bad planning is responsible for poor living conditions.

C. Living conditions are bad because the city is too big.

D. Small cities have better living conditions than large ones.

3. What does the statement mean?

A. Many people are concerned about their security.

B. Social security bears no relation to population.

C. Most social security problems are caused by a few people

D. Too many people may result in social security problems.

4. Passengers must check in to board Flight 998 by

A. 10:30 a.m. B. 10:00 a.m. C. 11:30 a.m. D. 11:00 a.m.

5. The speaker is probably a(n)

A. insurance agent. B. fireman. C. salesman. D. policeman.

6. The speaker thinks that

A. Ian achieved a lot as an athlete.

B. Ian’s blind eye prevented him from athletics.

C. Ian’s success depended on his childhood experience.

D. Ian trained so hard in athletics as to lose one eye.

7. Mrs. Clark is worried about her

A. husband’s health B. husband’s work

C. husband’s illness D. own health

8. The relationship between Susan and Jenny is

A. neutral. B. friendly. C. unclear. D. strained.

9. What do we learn about Jack?

A. He is well-known for hard work

B. He is pretty busy working.

C. He has overworked and hurt his sight.

D. He doesn’t like to have dinner with us.

SECTION B CONVERSATION (5%)

In this section, you will hear nine short conversations between two speakers. At the end of each conversation you will be given 10 seconds to answer the question.

10. What are they mainly talking about?

A. Graduation date. B. Vacation plans. C. School courses D. Job hunting.

11. The conversation probably takes place in

A. a library B. a bookstore. C. the classroom. D. a department store.

12. The relationship between the two speakers is probably

A. man and wife. B. lawyer and client.

C. customer and waitress. D. colleagues.

13. We can infer from the conversation that the man is a(n)

A. plumber. B. construction worker. C. office boy D. porter.

14. What will the man probably do next?

A. Turn off the tape recorder. B. Turn up the tape recorder.

C. Call the doctor. D. Continue to play.

15. How does Lisa feel about her work?

A. Satisfied. B. Frustrated. C. Annoyed D. Confident

PART II CLOZE 15% [15 MIN.]

Decide which of the choices given below would best complete the passage if inserted in the corresponding blanks. Mark the best choice for each blank on your answer sheet.

Traditional superstitions and beliefs 16 disappear altogether; they assume new forms and 17 to contemporary conditions. 18 in the 21st century people may dismiss their forefather's customs and practices as superstition, many are still current. A Friday which falls on the 13th of a month is widely feared as 19 , and so are spilling and walking under a ladder. Belief 20 the power of mascots is far from 21 ; the lucky rabbit's foot, like the horseshoe, is a popular charm. Certain foods, too, 22 their ancient lore. Many people, for example, accept the old adage "an apple a day keeps the doctor away". One aspect of traditional 23 which is still very much 24 today is folk medicine. When the causes of illness were totally 25 , and disease seemed to strike without any reason, it was often 26 to evil spirits taking over the body. To 27 the patient, the demons of disease must be driven out, and many "cures" were spells and charms intended to exorcise these usurpers. Until 28 modern times even “official” medicine was very unpleasant, with no anaesthetics or pain-killers, and a low success rate. Few people, 29 , could afford it, and most relied on folk healers and magic. There was an enormous range of herbal cures, some of which have since been found to have actual healing properties. Charms were worn to ward off disease; and a wide 30 of seemingly strange objects, such as church furnishings, were credited with powers of healing.

16. A. often B. already C. seldom D. always

17. A. adopt B. adapt C. continue D. go

18. A. But B. Since C. Then D. Although

19. A. lucky B. unlucky C. superstitiopus D. magic

20. A. in B. of C. about D. for

21. A. alive B. live C. dead D. vanish

22. A. get B. regain C. rewind D. retain

23. A. behaviour B. factor C. wonder D. means

24. A. live B. living C. alive D. life

25. A. suspicious B. suspected C. wondered D. unknown

26. A. contributed B. attributed C. achieved D. deteriorated

27. A. diagnose B. treat C. cure D. watch

28. A. comparatively B. very C. recently D. constantly

29. A. in case B. in every case C. in no case D. in any case

30. A. variety B. group C. form D. amount

PART III GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY 25% [20 MIN.]

There are twenty-five sentences in this section. Beneath each sentence there are four words or phrases marked A, B, C and D. Choose one word or phrase that best completes the sentence.

Mark your answers on your answer sheet.

31. Arriving at the bus stop, ______ waiting there.

A. a lot of people were. B. he found a lot of people C. a lot of people D. people were found

32. We can assign the task to ____ is capable and trustworthy.

A. whomever B. who C. whom D. whoever

33. _______ regular training in nursing, she could hardly cope with the work at first.

A. Not received B. Since receiving C. Having received D. Not having received

34. So badly _____ in the car accident that he had to stay in hospital for a few months.

A. did he injure B. injured him C. was he injured D. he was injured

35. The country’s chief exports are coal, cars and cotton goods, cars _____ the most important of these.

A. have been B. are C. being D. are being

36. It was recommended that passengers _____ smoke during the flight.

A. not B. need not C. could not D. would not

37. Only take such clothes ________ really necessary.

A. as were B. as they are C. as they were D. as are

38. _______ you were busy, I wouldn’t have bothered you with my questions.

A. If I realized B. Had I realized C. I realized that D. As I realized

39. _______ is often the case with a new idea, much preliminary activity and optimistic discussion produced no concrete proposals.

A. That B. It C. This D. As

40. Please dispose _______ those old newspapers while you’re cleaning up the room.

A. out B. of C. away D. in

41. He was _______ admittance to the concert hall for not being properly dressed.

A. rejected B. denied C. withheld D. deprived

42. The problem has ________ simply because you didn’t follow the instructions in the handbook.

A. assembled B. arisen C. risen D. resulted

43. In the next few years major changes will be _______ in China’s industries.

A. brought forward B. brought about C. brought on D. brought up

44. Judicious praise is to children _____ the sun to flowers.

A. like B. as C. what D. that

45. We are in an ear of information procession _____ there are great opportunities for those who can qualify.

A. which B. when C. that D. where

46. Although cats can’t see in complete darkness, their eyes are much more sensitive to light than ________.

A. are human eyes B. do human eyes C. human eyes do D. human eyes can

47. Even as a girl, _____ to be her life, and theater audiences were to be her best teachers.

A. performing by Melissa were B. it was known that Melissa’s performances were

C. knowing that Melissa’s performances were D. Melissa knew that performing was

48. There is no doubt __ the company has made the right decision on the sales project.

A. why B. that C. whether D. when

49. He was ______ to tell the truth even to his closest friend.

A. too much of a coward B. too much the coward C. a coward enough D. enough of a coward

50. Barry had an advantage over his mother ______ he could speak French.

A. since that B. in that C. at that D. so that

51. You needn’t worry ______ regards the cost of the operation.

A. with B. which C. as D. about

52. The team’s efforts to score were ______ by the opposing goalkeeper.

A. frustrated B. prevented C. discouraged D. accomplished

53. Being colour-blind, Sally can’t make a ______ between red and green.

A. difference B. distinction C. comparison D. division

54. You must insist that students give a truthful answer ______ with the reality of their world.

A. relevant B. simultaneous C. consistent D. practical

55. He drank his beer and _____ reading the paper.

A. proceeded B. advanced C. confronted D. resumed

PART IV READING COMPREHENSION 25% [35 MIN.]

In this section there are six passages followed by questions or unfinished statements, each with four suggested answers marked A, B, C and D. Choose the one that you think is the best answer.

Mark your answers on your answer sheet.

Text A

Whatever may be said against mass circulation magazines and newspapers, it can hardly be argued that they are out of touch with their readers' daydreams, and therefore the inducements they hold out to them must be a near. accurate reflection of their unfulfilled wants and aspirations. Study these and you will assuredly understand a good deal of what it is that makes society tick.

Looking back, for example, to the twenties and thirties, we can see that circulation managers unerringly diagnosed the twin obsessions which dominated that era of mass unemployment -- economic insecurity and a passionate concern for the next generation. Thus it was that readers were recruited with offers of free insurance policies for the one, and free instant education for the other. The family whose breadwinner lost an eye in a double railway derailment, or an arm in a flood, could confidently expect to collect several hundred pounds from the Daily This or the Evening That. The family who could not afford to send their son to grammar school could find consolation in equipping him with the complete works of Shakespeare in one magnificent, easy to read volume.

After the war the need to fall into step with the new consumer society was soon realized. If you were flanked by neighbors who, unlike you, could afford a holiday abroad, then winning an easy competition could set you up with a fortnight in an exotic sunspot. Dishwashers, washing machines, slow-cookers and deep-fat-friers were - and still are- available by the same means.

56. The writer finds the study of gifts and prizes interesting because it

A. A. reveals social trends.

B. B. exposes journalistic dishonesty.

C. C. confirms his view of human nature.

D. D. shows the power of the popular press.

57. From the passage, we are told that newspapers in the 1920s and 1930s offered their readers gifts in order to

A. spread popular education.

B. increase their circulation.

C. improve social conditions.

D. increase their readers' ambitions.

58. What does the choice of gifts tell us about the circulation managers?

A. They despised their readers.

B. They understood their readers.

C. They enjoyed being powerful.

D. They were out of touch.

59. Why did holidays abroad become a common prize after the war?

A. Group travel became easier.

B. Everyone wanted the opportunity to travel.

C. People became more interested in material possessions.

D. People wanted to get away from familiar surroundings.

Text B

Thirty years ago the Today program was unpredictable to the point of chaos with presenter Jack da Manio improvising and thinking aloud, always eager for a joke or a prank. Through the studio trooped a procession of English eccentrics ---- a man who ate light bulbs, another who ate spiders, a chap who was touring the country leapfrogging all the pillar boxes, a hard-headed individual who could play Rule Britannia by hitting himself on the head with a nine-inch spanner ---- and many others. Talking dogs and singing cats were almost common place.

By the mid-70s, however, Today had got to the point where, for example, it had on one morning Libby Purves making the first "live" radio broadcast from China, someone else in Dublin covering the pope's visit, another presenter in Margate where the Liberals were conferring, and an anchorman in London.

When you have reached this stage, there is no room for talking dogs, and humor and whims have to be confined to odd corners.

Despite its more serious approach, however, Today has somehow retained its character and its tone of voice. And being a live, high-risk program, it can still go horribly wrong. Only recently an eminent doctor launched into a lengthy on-air harangue against the production team and refused to listen to the questions he was supposed to be answering. Such things can always happen ---- and so can studio rows, sometimes even involving the presenters. There was a memorable spat not long ago when a rattled Nigel Lawson accused Redhead of being a well-known supporter of the Labor party.

But rows or no rows. Today is where the ministers and would-be ministers want to be heard. As Brian Redhead is fond of saying: "If you want to plant a word in the nation's ear, come on Today." His other favorite remark is: "We set the agenda for the day." Both statements are true of a program with a steady weekly audience of 6 million ---- easily the largest on Radio 4.

60. Before the 1970s, the Today program used to be quite a

A. serious program.

B. humorous program.

C. religious program.

D. political program.

61. According to the passage, the Today program is

A. extremely influential.

B. becoming less popular.

C. fairly obscure.

D. politically biased.

62. Which of the following examples is given to show the program sometimes does not go according to plan?

A. Libby Purves had an argument with Nigel Lawson.

B. Someone hit himself on the head with a spanner.

C. Someone leapfrogged pillar boxes in the street.

D. A doctor declined to answer the set questions.

Text C

One of the good things for men in women’s liberation is that men no longer have to pay women the old-fashioned courtesies.

In an article on the new manners, Mrs. Holmes says that a perfectly able woman no longer has to act helplessly in public as if she were a model. For example, she doesn’t need help getting in and out of cars. “Women get in and out cars twenty times a day with babies and dogs. Surely they can get out by themselves at night just as easily.”

She also says there is no reason why a man should walk on the outside of a woman on the sidewalk. “Historically, the man walked on the inside so he caught the garbage thrown out of a window. Today a man is supposed to walk on the outside. A man should walk where he wants to. So should a woman. If, out of love and respect, he actually wants to take the blows, he should walk on the inside--because that’s where attackers are all hiding these days.”

As far as manners are concerned, I suppose I have always been a supporter of women’s liberation. Over the years, out of a sense of respect, I imagine, I have refused to trouble women with outdated courtesies.

It is usually easier to follow rules of social behaviour than to depend on one’s own taste. But rules may be safely broken, of course, by those of us with gift of natural grace. For example, when a man and woman are led to their table in a restaurant and the waiter pulls out a chair, the woman is expected to sit in the chair. That is according to Ms. Ann Clark. I have always done it the other way, according to my wife.

It came up only the other night. I followed the hostess to the table, and when she pulled the chair out I sat on it, quite naturally, since it happened to be the chair I wanted to sit in.

“Well,” my wife said, when the hostess had gone, “you did it again.”

“Did what?” I asked, utterly confused.

“Took the chair.”

Actually, since I’d walked through the restaurant ahead of my wife, it would have been awkward, I should think, not to have taken the chair. I had got there first, after all.

Also, it has always been my custom to get in a car first, and let the woman get in by herself. This is a courtesy I insist on as the stronger sex, out of love and respect. In times like these, there might be attackers hidden about. It would be unsuitable to put a woman in a car and then shut the door on her, leaving her at the mercy of some bad fellow who might be hiding in the back seat.

63. It can be concluded from the passage that

A. men should walk on the inside of a sidewalk.

B. women are becoming more capable than before.

C. in women’s liberation men are also liberated.

D. it’s safe to break rules of social behaviour.

65. The author was “utterly confused” because he

A. A. took the chair out of habit.

B. B. was trying to be polite.

C. C. was slow in understanding

D. D. had forgotten what he did.

65. He “took the chair” for all the following reasons EXCEPT that

A. A. he got to the chair first.

B. B. he happened to like the seat.

C. C. his wife ordered him to do so.

D. D. he’d walked ahead of his wife.

66. The author always gets in a car before a woman because he

A. A. wants to protect her.

B. B. doesn’t need to help her.

C. C. chooses to be impolite to her.

D. D. fears attacks on him.

67. The author is _____ about the whole question of manners and women’s liberation.

A. joking B. satirical C. serious D. critical

68. Which of the following best states the main idea of the passage?

A. Manners ought to be thrown away altogether.

B. In manners one should follow his own judgement.

C. Women no longer need to be helped in public.

D. Men are not expected to be courteous to women.

Text D

Does a drink a day keep heart attacks away? Over the past 20 years, numerous studies have found that moderate alcohol consumption--say, one or two beers, glasses of wine or cocktails daily-- helps to prevent coronary heart disease. Last week a report in the New England Journal of Medicine added strong new evidence in support of that theory. More important, the work provided the first solid indication of how alcohol works to protect the heart.

In the study, researchers from Boston's Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School compared the drinking habits of 340 men and women who had suffered recent heart attacks with those of healthy people of the same age and sex. The scientists found that people who sip one to three drinks a day are about half as likely to suffer heart attacks as nondrinkers are. The apparent source of the protection: those who drank alcohol had higher blood levels of high-density lipoproteins (脂蛋白), the so-called good cholesterol (胆固醇), which is known to repel heart disease.

As evidence has mounted, some doctors have begun recommending a daily drink for patients of heart diseases. But most physicians are not ready to recommend a regular happy hour for everyone. The risks of teetotalling are nothing compared with the dangers of too much alcohol, including high blood pressure, strokes and liver troubles--not to mention violent behaviour and traffic accidents. Moreover, some studies suggest that even moderate drinking may increase the incidence of breast and colon (结肠) cancer. Until there is evidence that the benefits of a daily dose of alcohol outweigh the risks, most people won't be able to take a doctor's prescription to the neighbourhood bar or liquor store.

69. The medical article quoted in the passage demonstrates ______.

A. the way in which alcohol can help the heart

B. how a couple of cocktails daily can stop heart problems

C. why alcoholic drinks are dangerous to one's health

D. that reports on the advantages of alcohol were misfounded

70. Experiments showed that nondrinkers had ______.

A. A. larger amounts of good cholesterol

B. B. smaller amounts of good cholesterol

C. C. higher blood pressure

D. D. lower blood pressure

71. According to the passage, moderate drinking ______.

A. A. is recommended by most doctors for heart patients

B. B. should be allowed on prescription

C. C. is still not medically advisable

D. D. is not related to liver problems

72. The main theme of this passage is ______.

A. A. the change in recent drinking habits

B. B. the connection between cancer and alcohol

C. C. whether moderate drinkers outlive nondrinkers

D. D. whether alcohol may be good for your health

Text E

I am going to mobilise public opinion sufficiently to bring to the very top of the nation's conservation agenda the several endangered species I have in mind. I think all I ask now, is that the mangel-wurzel be not allowed to die out.

The mangel has been a great friend to the traditional British farmer. It is the easiest of crops to grow and is seemingly resistant to any disease. There is a price to be paid in that it is a delicate crop that cannot be lifted by machine or it will be bruised and rot, so has to be hauled by hand which is expensive. But why, just because it is a sensitive soul, should it be allowed to pass away? I have now grown five crops and each has been better than the previous one. I had high hopes that we might achieve that happy state, where the mangels were so huge it took two men to lift one. But my dreams lie shattered across the desks of the seed merchants who insist there is no mangel seed to be found.

Things have been on the decline for some years. A catalogue from the 1920s listed more than 30 varieties, yet the most I have ever been offered is a choice of two. This year there is no choice at all. The next question that arises is how I am going to break this to the livestock, and to the cows in particular who have done spectacularly well when winter arrived and I stopped feeding them corn and gave them mangels instead. How can I bring myself, next New Year, to offer them miserable pellets of something indescribable when they have spent the whole of the autumn looking forward to the day when their jaws will sink into that crisp, ruddy root and the sweet juices will flow?

The seed suppliers tell me things will be better next year but I am not certain I trust them. Our only hope now is to create a demand for mangels, make them into a fashion item, get them into Habitate. As a crop, they would be quite easy to grow in a garden and whilst not the most attractive of border plants they make wonderful wine, I am told.

This may all sound far-fetched, but the situation is serious and demands an urgent and imaginative response: any ideas you may have would be welcome. My Farmers' Cyclopedia of 1912 tells me that mangel-wurzel means, roughly translated from German, "root of scarcity". Let us hope that it does not live up to its name.

73. In what season is mangel-wurzel fed to the animals?

A. Summer. B. Autumn. C. Winter. D. Spring.

74. The author's next move in defence of the mangel is ______.

A. A. to rely on the seed suppliers

B. B. to get his cows to eat another type of crop

C. C. to make it seem stylish to grow mangels

D. D. to introduce a new variety of mangel-wurzel

75.The author's purpose in writing this passage is ______.

A. A. to explain the origins of the mangel

B. B. to appeal for help in saving the mangel

C. C. to discourage the domestic growth of the mangel

D. D. to promote the production of mangel-wurzel wine

Text F

I am one of the many city people who are always saying that given the choice we would prefer to live in the country away from the dirt and noise of a large city. I have managed to convince myself that if it weren’t for my job I would immediately head out for the open space and go back to nature in some sleepy village buried in the country. But how realistic is the dream?

Cities can be frightening places. The majority of the population live in massive tower blocks, noisy, dirty and impersonal. The sense of belonging to a community tends to disappear when you live fifteen floors up. All you can see from your window is sky, or other blocks of flats. Children become aggressive and nervous—cooped up at home all day, with nowhere to play; their mothers feel isolated from the rest of the world. Strangely enough, whereas in the past the inhabitants of one street all knew each other, nowadays people on the same floor in tower blocks don’t even say hello to each other.

Country life, on the other hand, differs from this kind of isolated existence in that a sense of community generally binds the inhabitants of small villages together. People have the advantage of knowing that there is always someone to turn to when they need help. But country life has disadvantages too. While it is true that you may be among friends in a village, it is also true that you are cut from the exciting and important events that take place in cities. There’s little possibility of going to a new show or the latest movie. Shopping becomes a major problem, and for anything slightly out of the ordinary you have to go on an expedition to the nearest large town. The city-dweller who leaves for the country is often oppressed by a sense of unbearable stillness and quiet.

What, then, is the answer? The country has the advantage of peace and quiet, but suffers from the disadvantage of being cut off; the city breeds a feeling of isolation, and constant noise batters the senses. But one of its main advantages is that you are at the centre of things, and that life doesn’t come to an end at half past nine at night. Some people have found (or rather bought) a compromise between the two: they have expressed their preference for the “quiet life” by leaving the suburbs and moving to villages within commuting distance of large cities. They generally have about as much sensitivity as the plastic flowers they leave behind—they are polluted with strange ideas about changes and improvement which they force on to the unwilling original inhabitants of the villages.

What then of my dreams of leaning on a cottage gate and murmuring “morning” to the locals as they pass by. I’m keen on the idea, but you see there’s my cat, Toby. I’m not at all sure that he would take to all that fresh air and exercise in the long grass. I mean, can you see him mixing with all those healthy males down the farm? No, he would rather have the electric imitation-coal fire any evening.

76. We get the impression from the first paragraph that the author

A. A. used to live in the country.

B. B. used to work in the city.

C. C. works in the city.

D. D. lives in the country.

77. In the author’s opinion the following may cause city people to be unhappy EXCEPT

A. A. a strong sense of fear.

B. B. lack of communication.

C. C. housing conditions

D. D. a sense of isolation

78. The passage implies that it is easy to buy the following things in the country EXCEPT

A. A. daily necessities.

B. B. fresh fruits

C. C. designer clothes.

D. D. fresh vegetables.

79. According to the passage, which of the following adjectives best describes those people who work in large cities and live in villages?

A. Original. B. Quiet. C. Arrogant. D. Insensitive.

80. Do you think the author will move to the country?

A. A. Yes, he will do so.

B. B. No, he will not do so.

C. C. It is difficult to tell.

D. D. He is in two minds.

PART V TRANSLATION 20% [30 MIN.]

SECTION A TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING CHINESE SENTENCES INTO ENGLISH (10%)

1. 世界卫生组织计划在日内瓦举行一次国际科学会议，以回顾有关非典型性肺炎的最新发现，并讨论全球性的控制策略。

2. 伊拉克反对派官员上周在新闻采访中明确表示他们将不受萨达姆政府以前与俄国，法国和德国公司达成的石油交易的约束。

3. 对伊拉克使用武力的合法性是令人怀疑的，因为这场战争显然违反了国际法的基本原则。

4. 中国作为一个发展中国家，面临着发展经济与保护环境的双重任务。

5. 受害者都是在办小时内被击中，该少年随后把一颗子弹射进自己的头部而自杀。这事件在这个8千人的村庄中引起了恐慌。

SECTION B TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING PARAGRAPH FROM ENGLISH INTO CHINESE. (15%)

Intellectual property is characterized by heavy fixed costs relative to marginal costs. It is often very expensive to create, but once it is created the cost of making additional copies is low, dramatically so in the case of software, where it is only a slight overstatement to speak of marginal cost as zero. Without legal protection, the creator of intellectual property may be unable to recoup his investment, because competitors can free ride on it; and so legal protection can expand output rather than, as in the usual case of monopoly, reduce it. At the same time, legal protection of intellectual property may operate to deflect consumers to more costly substitutes. The owner of the patent or copyright will charge a positive price for copying, even though the marginal cost may be zero; the positive price will deflect some consumers to substitutes. To prevent these defections would require perfect price discrimination, which is infeasible because it would require the seller to have complete information about the elasticity of the demand for his product by all his customers and potential customers. (Richard A. Posner, Antitrust in the New Economy)

Translation

Section A.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Section B.

评价一下你浏览此帖子的感受

分享到： QQ空间新浪微博腾讯微博人人网网易微博

回复引用

举报顶端

上一主题下一主题

考博论坛 » 考博见面礼

http://freekaobo.com
访问内容超出本站范围，不能确定是否安全
继续访问	取消访问

快速回复
	限 100 字节进入高级模式加粗字体颜色背景颜色插入链接图片验证问题: 5+2=? 正确答案:7 按"Ctrl+Enter"直接提交	上一个下一个