对阅读有用的词汇

Glossary of Sociological Terms for Reading Comprehension

A
abortion The 1967 Abortion Act permitted termination of pregnancy by a registered practitioner subject to certain conditions and was introduced in 1968. Currently around one-third of conceptions outside marriage are terminated in an abortion.
absolute mobility The measured movement from one social location to another, whether 'upwards' or 'downwards'.
absolute poverty It is often associated with the concept of a poverty line. Those below this line are in absolute poverty.
abuse This can be physical, sexual and verbal. Associated with children but partners can be abused too.
access A means of acquiring something.
acculturation Acculturation is the process whereby through contact between different cultures, a complex process of cultural adaptation and change occurs.
achieved status Social prestige or ranking that has been earned through effort, such as educational success, employment position, etc.
affluent workers skilled manual workers
age stratification When people of different ages experience inequality in the distribution of privileges or power.
ageism Prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age.
anthropology Academic study of all the cultures and societies within the world.
anti-essentialism A stance taken (e.g. by third wave feminists or postmodernists) that recognizes difference and individuality within groups, rather than assuming everyone within a group is homogenous and has experiences and meanings in common.
aristocracy Another term for the upper-class, but referring specifically to those associated with inherited wealth and nobility. Aristocracy is thus associated with titles, ancestral homes, and the landed gentry. Today the upper-class also includes rich entrepreneurs and, to some extent, celebrity 'jet set'.
Aristotle (384-322 bc)
arranged marriages When marital partners are chosen by parents, although the right to veto or to choose partners with parental agreement is now common.
assimilation The process whereby minorities adopt and blend into the dominant culture of the host nation.
asymmetry Not equal or balanced. Opposite of symmetrical which when applied to the family means equality.
audiences The people who buy or consume a media product
authority An expression of power exercised through the acceptance by the less powerful of the legitimacy of those in dominant positions.
b
bias Putting a slant on something so that it reflects your prejudices and views and it is not a true image of the world.
biological determinism The notion that biological features have an impact on behaviour that is largely beyond an individual's control.
birth rate Typically expressed as the number of live births per 1000 women of child bearing age.
bourgeoisie The name Karl Marx gave to the dominant class who own the means of production in capitalism.
capitalism
case study The study of one person or incident and drawing conclusions from that study that can be applied more widely.
censorship Many countries do not allow certain subjects to be shown or discussed in the media, most commonly, sex and violence. Censorship is when the blocking of certain topics is official in some way.
citizenship Belonging to, being a member of a nationality.
classic extended family the structure of the typical pre-industrial family
closed questions Questions with a determined set of fixed answers, often in the form of multiple choice.
closed society Opposite of an open society. In a closed society these is limited or no opportunity for social mobility.
closed system A situation (such as a science laboratory) where all variables can be controlled.
cohabitation, Living together in a sexual relationship without having undergone a wedding ceremony.
communes Collective body of people who share living accommodation to varying degrees.
community A form of social organisation that gives people a sense of belonging in some form to a larger group either geographically or as an identity.
commuting class Term that reflects the middle class who bought houses in the suburbs of towns and cities and commute to work.
companionate Term used to describe the jointness of couples, not only in terms of the tasks they perform, but equally in their leisure activities too.
conflict Competing for power and domination between social groups. This social perspective is associated with Marxism and feminisim.
consensus A commonly agreed position or set of values. Consensus is a key concept associated with the functionalist perspective.
conspiracy theory Notion that a powerful minority conspire to promote their mutual self-interests over the majority.
constraints on the media. Things that control what the media may and may not report.
contestable When an idea, concept or theory is open to criticism and challenge.
correlations Apparent links between two variables, such as female and higher performance in the education system. Note a correlation is a link not a determinant so being female does not guarantee educational success.
cult Rarely used sociologically, a cult is a new religious movement.
cultural deficits, Some people experience a culture which lacks the social skills needed for success.
cultural deprivation, Some people do not have access to cultural capital and do not gain the social knowledge relevant for success.
cultural diversity The differences between cultures.
cultural penetration The imposition of Western cultural values on the assumption they are superior to non-western values.
cultural relativity Your sense of right and wrong depends on the values of your culture.
cultural reproduction The reinforcement of consensus norms, values and attitudes, including hegemonic ideology. Marxist critics see the mass media as a powerful institution of cultural reproduction.
cultural transmission The way in which a culture is passed on from one generation to the next.
'dark-side' of the family Term used to challenge the romantic view of the family by perspectives such as feminists and Radical Psychiatrists. They highlight the extent of conflict and violence in families.
death rate Typically expressed as the number of deaths per 1000 women of child-bearing age.
deceit Dishonesty.
decision making The right to decide how others should act.
decoding The messages interpreted from a media 'text' by the audience. Note: these may be different from the author's encoded messages.
demeanour Broad concept about the how a person 'comes across' in terms of appearance, attitude and manner.
democracy System of government where people participate.
demographic changes Key changes to the population which impact on the family. For example, declining fertility rate, ageing population and delayed pregnancy.
denomination An organised religious grouping with many members, it is not linked to the state and may be an off-shoot of another religion or church.
dependency Dependency refers to a state of relying of someone else for your needs. In sociology, dependency culture is used to refer to people who rely on benefits to live instead of getting paid work.
desensitisation Occurs when exposure to screen violence renders children less sensitive to the shock and horror of such violence.
determinism The belief that one thing directly causes another. The theoretical idea that people have limited (if any) free will and that their lives are shaped by structures external to them and beyond their control (see Structuralism below).
development The degree of industrialisation, health, welfare and education of a nation
deviance Failure to conform to culturally expected norms of behaviour. Breaking social rules
deviant sub-cultures Deviance can also include groups as well as individuals.
diaspora Word derived from the Greek meaning "scattering of seeds". As a result of global movement of people, it reflects how immigrants bring elements of their culture to their new countries. Paul Gilroy explicitly talks of 'Black Atlantic' to describe elements of African culture in the black communities across the globe.
differentiation The social differences in status and power between various social groups
disability A physical or mental inability to do something that most other people would consider normal.
discrimination Ability to act on a prejudice
disenchantment A sense of being at odds with things or feeling cynical about something.
Disneyization Term coined by Alan Bryman, which has some parallels with George Ritzer's McDonaldization, which describes the Disney Corporation’s approach to consumers: themes, dedifferentiation of consumption, merchandising and emotional labour.
divorce The legal termination of marriage.
documentary method Term used in ethnomethodology to refer to how we make sense of each event we interpret as seeing it as an example, or 'document' of a general type familiar to us in our commonsense.
domestic labour. Domestic labour is unpaid work carried out in the home, housework
domestication of women Women were seen by many feminists (such as Ann Oakley) to be equal to men and free from domestic responsibilities (undertaken by children) in pre-industrial society. Subsequently the factory system resulted in women and children excluded from the workplace, and women's primary role became that of being responsible for domestic roles.
dual-income households Common family situation as women increasingly take on the role as secondary breadwinner.
edgework Term associated with Lyng referring to the activities of young males seeking thrills and excitement, such as goping to the edge of acceptable behaviour and flirting with danger (e.g. joy-riding or drug-taking).
electronic colonialism Term associated with Thomas McPhail to describe the imposition of Western cultural ideas more insidious and as dominant as the military and mercantile colonialism of the past.
elementary family the inner or 'elementary' nuclear family consisting of wives, husbands, their children, brothers and sisters.
elementary schools Schools set up following industrialisation to educate the masses primarily in the basic skills of numeracy and literacy, together with moral education.
elite theory It is believed that a small group of very wealthy and powerful people control society
empirical When social phenomena can be measured and tested in an objective manner with the production of supporting data.
empiricism The belief in science as the only way to understand society.
empty nesters Families when children have grown up and left home.
empty-shell marriages Term given to marriage where love and romance have long-gone and couples stay together either because divorce is not an option (say for religious reasons) or they simply cannot make the effort to separate.
encoding The messages put into a media 'text' by the author. Note: these may be different from the audience's decoded messages.
endogamy Marriage between people of the same social category.
Enlightenment, The Period between the first and fourth quarters of the eighteenth century when enlightened intellectual thinking replaced the 'Dark Age'. The old model of the world that had been shaped by the Roman Catholic church for the past thousand years was increasingly challenged by new rational thinking and explanations. In short the Enlightenment is the period of history where 'reason replaced faith' and paved the way for the Modernisation of society.
entrepreneurs Literally a term meaning ‘risk-takers’, it generally refers to those who invest in money-making projects. The upper-class is primarily made up these days of ‘new’ money (self-made, rather than inherited) with entrepreneurs outnumbering the old money of the aristocracy.
environmental movement People whose primary concern is the state of the planet.
equality People have same chances of access to power and wealth.
equality of opportunity The equal ability to access the benefits of social institutions such as government and education
essentialism The way in which groups become defined as homogenous on the basis of predefined characteristics or dispositions.
ethics The study of right and wrong. In sociology, it is essential that studies do not harm the people who participate in them. There is a code of ethics organised by the British Sociological Association which should be followed in any social research
ethnicity Your sense of the culture or nationality to which you belong.
ethnography This is the study of ordinary people. The term was coined by Garfinkel and an ethnographic study usually suggests that an observation has been carried out.
eugenics Belief that those with poor quality genes should be restricted from reproduction. Through interbreeding these defective and dangerous people pose a threat to the genetic purity of the healthy.
evolutionary Theory Theory (supported by both functionalists and Marxists) that the process of industrialisation caused the family to evolve from extended to nuclear. This is sometimes referred to as the 'theory of fit'.
exclusion. Not to be allowed access to something. This can be in school, where children are excluded as a punishment. More importantly, exclusion is seen as a form of poverty where people cannot participate fully in normal life because they cannot afford it.
exogamy Marriage between people from different social categories.
experimentation Set up scientific systems of studying behaviour.
expressive roles Term used by Talcott Parsons to describe the domestic role of women in which they are expected to emotionally support their husbands and children.
extended transition The increasingly common experience of young people to stay longer living with their parents, thus extending their dependency and prolonging the period of 'youth'.
first wave feminism Applies to feminists active around the turn of the last century and particularly associated with campaign for votes for women.
folk culture Pre-industrial music, dancing, tales, festivals, carnivals, remedies and restoratives.
fragmented Term associated with Postmodernism, seeing society increasingly diverse and individualistic. People and component parts of society are less homogenous than they used to be. However, with diversity invariably comes uncertainty.
free market The economic ideological stance of the political right that there should be minimal government intervention in any market. The inspiration for this view is often cited as Adam Smith who argued markets will efficiently allocate resources as if by an 'invisible hand'.
fundamentalism, The desire to return to a ‘pure’ form of religious belief often associated with conservativism and a desire to return to the values of the past.
gender A cultural term reflecting social attributes associated with being male or female.
generalization The ease with which the findings of one setting are likely to apply to similar settings.
genetic determinism The notion that genes have an impact on behaviour that is largely beyond an individual's control.
global culture When icons and products are recognised across the world such as the olden arches of McDonalds or the Coca Cola logo. A global culture is closely related to globalisation.
globalization Term applied to the process of increasing global interconnectedness, whereby goods and services, capital flows, workers increasingly move around the world encouraged by trade and revolutions in communications and technology.
golden age Period following the Second World War when for twenty years or so there was full employment, very low divorce rate and a Welfare State that supported people 'from the cradle to the grave'. Despite the austerity immediately following the War, the 1950s and 1960s became known as the 'affluent society'.
hegemony Concept associated with Antonio Gramsci to explain how the upper-class maintain power through the subtle use of ideas to win the consent of subordinated groups. Ordinary people are led to believe that the prevailing existing order is somehow natural and normal.
heresy Crime of proclaiming doctrines other than Christianity.
high culture Used to be described as "dead white male" culture since it revolved so much around composers, artists, dramatists, etc. who were male, white and lived some time ago e.g. Mozart, Monet, Shakespeare, etc. It is often assumed that high culture is intrinsically good, and artistically superior to popular culture.
Home Office Government department in charge of 'law and order' and the policing of Britain. The Home Secretary is held responsible for the criminal justice matters.
homogenity All the same. No differentiation. Opposite of heterogeneity.
household Single person or group of people who share the same self-contained accommodation. Thus, although many households are families, the term also includes people living alone, couples or groups of unrelated people like students.
households People who share living accommodation.
hybrid identities This is said to occur when ethnic cultures borrow styles, behaviours and fashions from one another, as the boundaries between different ethnic groups are subject to shift and blurring over time.
hyperreality Term associated with the postmodernist Jean Baudrillard to illustrate how the powerful media can create an image of reality more real than reality itself.
hypothesis A suggested causal relationship that can form the basis and purpose of research in an attempt to prove or disprove this.
identity Sense of self.
illegitimacy Being born out of wedlock. Used to be a source of stigmatization, but currently 40 per cent of babies are officially 'illegitimate' so it has become normalized.
incest Sexual activity between close kin.
industrial revolution Occurred in mid-eighteenth century to mid- nineteenth century (1740-1850) in Europe, transforming society from rural agricultural to urban industrial. This transformation is referred to as the period of modernisation.
industrialisation The process of a culture or a region becoming more economically dependent on manufacturing than on farming.
industrialization Process by which societies move from agricultural to factory/manufacturing employment. It is paralleled by the process of urbanisation.
inequality Differences in levels of access to wealth and power between social groups
'infotainment' Term associated with Neil Postman meaning the combination of 'information' and 'entertainment' to reflect how so-called serious programmes like the news are increasingly centred on entertainment.
infrastructure Marxist term to describe the economic base which is the foundation to capitalism, and the class relationship that is based upon the relations of production.
kitsch German word for popular culture, but popularly used as a term of abuse, implying cultural artefacts that are mindless and worthless.
knowledge society Term associated with Daniel Bell to refer to the importance of those who produce and control knowledge (typically professionals) in securing a position of cultural advantage for themselves in post-industrial society.
L
life-chances A Weberian concept that reflects probability of success (or failure) over one's life in terms of education, occupation, health, housing, etc.
low culture Closely associated popular culture and typical examples would be bingo, music hall, popular music, tabloid newspapers, etc. In contrast to high culture it lacks status and is often viewed as vulgar, cheap and nasty, despite often appealing to a mass audience.
macro-level Term that usually applies to a grand-view such as of the whole of society or the social structure.
mainstream cultures. These are the ideas and ways of living of the majority of people in a culture.
mass culture Products that are manufactured to a formula in order to make money rather than to reflect of artistic merit or talent. Much of pop music, especially boy/girl bands reflect mass culture with the Spice Girls being the classic example.
mass media Forms of communication using modern technologies which reach large numbers of people.
McDonaldization Term coined by George Ritzer to reflect how Weber's prediction of rationalization is no longer confined to organizations and bureaucracies, but is typified in the Fordist methods of fast food operation. Key criteria are efficiency, calculability, predictability and control.
men in crisis Idea that men no longer know how to be male, and female that their traditional roles and sources of identity have been stripped from them as unemployment and divorce prevent them from occupying the male roles of breadwinner and fathering.
meritocracy A society where there is equality of opportunity enabling the talented to rise up to occupy society's most demanding roles. As a consequence it is considered fair and appropriate to reward these merited people with high income and status.
meritocracy, The best people rise to the top of the social structure because they are the most talented and best equipped to govern us.
Merton, Robert (1910-2003), American sociologist who helped develop structural functionalism to a more sophisticated level, recognising functions could be manifest, latent and dysfunctional. Merton popularised phrases like 'self-fulfilling prophecy', and although associated with functionalism, he questioned the very notion of grand theory, advocating instead 'middle-range theories', which he viewed as more appropriate in guiding empirical inquiry.
methodology Systematic study of society.
micro-level Term that usually applies on an individual level - such as individual motivations, actions and meanings.
migration Immigration, emigration, movement of people
military policing Term used by Lea and Young to refer to the form of policing that occurs when relationship between the police and community breaks down.
minimum wage Introduced by the 1997 Labour Government to guarantee a minimum wage paid to those in employment. Many feel that it was introduced at too low a level to significantly improve the living standards of those doing the lowest paid jobs. It is currently (2003) £4.50 an hour.
monopolization Process whereby industries come to be controlled by a single company.
multi-nationals Large companies with business interests in a number of different countries.
N
nation state An area controlled and ruled by one government.
nationalism A sense of allegiance to a single nation.
nationality Geographical and legal identity associated with a nation state.
new age As traditional religious beliefs have become less important in people’s lives, they have turned to other forms of spiritual expression such as candles, whale music, herbs, crystals and astrology. It is these beliefs that are views as new age.
nocturnal economy The leisure industry of clubbing and pubbing that has grown significantly in the past decade or so. This provides the location for many offences with three-quarters of violent crime occurring between 9pm and 3am at weekends by young males.
norms The normal and expected way to behave in a culture.
nouveau riche Literally means the 'new rich' and applies to those who have achieved wealth in their own life-time by means other than through inheritance.
O
objectivity The attempt to be scientific and unbiased in study.
observation A study technique that involves watching people in their normal social settings - Covert, overt, participant, non-participant watching others.
Oedipus complex Term associated with Sigmund Freud that small boys are in competition with their fathers for the love of their mother.
open questions Questions where the respondent is invited to give original and detailed answers, rather than being guided to choose one as with 'closed questions'
Oxbridge Term that encompasses both the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford. Sometimes used as a shorthand term for high status middle class elites or professionals
P
panopticon Model prison invented by Jeremy Bentham of a circular design in which every prisoner could be observed by the warders located in a central viewing area.
paradigm A theoretical model used as a tool for understanding an issue in real life. It is a pattern of thinking. Pronounce it as ‘paradime’
paternal Relating to fatherhood or to males in general
paternalism It is a view that suggests that less able people (and women) should be cared for by the state because they cannot do this for themselves.
patriarchal Male dominated.
patriarchy Means male domination, or the profit and gain men derive from the oppression and work of women.
peer group People of a similar status with whom you mix and identify with such as friends or workmates.
perspective Term for sociological theoretical approach, such as functionalism, Marxism, Interactionism, etc.
petit bourgeoisie The self-employed. Most generally a Marxist term
pilot test (study) A small scale study designed to test the methods intended for use in a large scale study
plagiarism This is the copying of other people’s work, or the use of their ideas without their permission. It is strictly illegal
pluralism A variety of different views and perspectives on society make up our culture
polarization Term for the division of society to extremes, such as the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer.
political ideologies An ideology is a belief system, so a political ideology refers to a belief system about the way in which society should be organised for the benefit of its members.
polyandry A form of marriage involving one woman and two or more men.
polygamy A type of marriage involving three or more people.
population explosion Rapid growth in population.
prejudice Stereotyping, negative, positive, notion of other – previous judgement.
propaganda Messages that are conveyed to support a particular view. It is particularly associated with how people can manipulate messages through the mass media.
public opinion polls Surveys undertaken by market research companies into people’s attitudes. They are commonly used during election campaigns.
public schools Highly exclusive private schools.
qualitative method This involves the collection of meanings, collected from interviews, diaries, letters and observation. It is usually richer and more detailed than quantitative data, but difficult to determine how representative it is as there is a danger of subjectivity.

quantitative This refers to research concerned with numerical and statistical data.
quantitative method This involves the collection of numerical data, collected from questionnaires and observation. Data that can be manipulated mathematically (statistically).
queer theory Theory that highlights how homosexuals are proud to different from the 'compulsory heterosexuality' of the past.
questionnaire(s) Questions are written on a piece of paper and respondents answer in their own writing.
racism Discrimination on basis of ethnicity, colour, religion, nation.
research strategy The methodological approach to undertaking research.
rites of passage A rite of passage is a ceremony or significant event marking a milestone in the life cycle, such as coming of age, graduation, marriage, leaving school, etc.
ritual Specific behaviour that has significant meaning. The term was used by Durkheim in connection with primitive religions.
role, achieved Roles in life which reflect merit and effort on the part of the individual, such as gaining entry to university, employment position, successful footballer, etc.
role, ascribed Roles in life which are given, such daughter/son.
role model An individual who is held up as an ideal example to copy from.
role performance How individuals behave in the roles they perform as part of their daily life. The term is associated with interactionist sociologists, such as Erving Goffman.
role playing Acting out a situation.
roles, multiple How as individuals we perform a variety of roles concurrently, such as father, partner, worker, friend, etc.
ruling class The term for the high social class who exercise power and control over the rest of society.
rural community Term for a collection of people living in the country who share a combined sense of belonging. Ferdinand Tönnies called this ‘gemeinschaft’.
sampling Using a smaller group within a population to represent the whole group.
scientific method Using the research methods of the natural sciences. This approach is known as positivism.
second wave feminism Feminist approach associated with the period of the Women’s Liberation Movement of the 1960s.
secular Non religious.
secularization, A process whereby traditional organised religion is losing significance in Western culture
segmentation Division into categories.
separatists Extreme radical feminists who seek a life experience as far away from men as possible.
service sector Largest employment sector of a post-industrial economy comprising white-collar workers.
sex ratio Comparative numbers of males relative to females.
social class Position in society as a group (status).
social cohesion When there is a strong bonding and sense of belonging within a group of people or society.
social mobility Being able to move up and down the social class system.
social stratification The layering of society into social classes: upper, middle and working.
social structure The organisations that make up society.
social work Profession care work undertaken to support those in society who experience social problems or are seen as vulnerable and in need of interventionist treatment.
stability A period of limited or no change.
standard of living Measurement of material living conditions of individuals, groups or society.
standardization The process of regularizing things into fixed criteria.
standardize When things are regularised into fixed criteria.
statistics Data gathered in number form.
subculture A small group of people with different norms and values from mainstream society.
subgroup A component group within a wider social group.
subjective Based on an individual’s emotions or interpretations.
suburban Referring to a residential district on the outskirts of a town or city. Derogative term meaning dull, boring, unexciting.
succession When a line of people or things that follow one another.
successive The following of others without interruption.
surveillance The trend of monitoring of people in society, operating as a key form of social control. It is associated particularly with Michel Foucault.
survey A study technique involving research of a large number of people.
synthesis The process of combining ideas to bring about better understanding or a higher level of knowledge.
system Another term for society or the social structure. It is particularly associated with Talcott Parsons.
tendency When there is an inclination for actions to occur in a certain way.
tension When a situation of unease or conflict exists between individuals, groups or societies.
transcendental When something goes beyond what is expected or normal.
transformation To change or convert into a new form.
transient A temporary state, not lasting for a long time.
transition The process of changing from one stage to another.
transsexuals When the gender identity of a person does not correspond to the sex indicated by their genitalia.
trend, social Observable pattern occurring within a social context.
tribe Group of people or clan, typically in pre-literate societies, often with shared family descendancy.
uniform When things are similar. Similar form of dress.
uniformity When everything is the same.
upper-class Exclusive group (around 1% of population) made up of the aristocracy, entrepreneurs and so-called ‘jet-set’ of very rich media, music and sport icons.
urban community An area with a cohesive identity within a town or city.
urbanisation Growth of towns and cities.
urbanize To transform a rural area into towns and cities.
utopia An ideal or perfect society.
V
valid Research is said to be 'valid' when findings are true to life.
validity The extent to which a study is truthful and reflects the reality of everyday life
value system A broad collection of subjective ideas, such as support for the free-enterprise market system.
variable Something in research that is subject to change.
variance When there is difference between things.
variation Something that is different from the standard form.
variant Something that differs from the standard type.
vulnerable When a group or individual is subject to external influence.
W
white collar worker Workers in the tertiary sector: clerical, professional and managerial.
withdrawal Removal.
working class Manual workers or low-skilled service sector workers.

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