考博完型与阅读辅导

阅读命题特点
w 文章不长,阅读量不大(200)
w 题目不难,词汇不难;
w 题材以社会科学为主;
w 命题规律性极强,反感觉性;
·形式:第一句是 “topic sentence”
·“choose the best one” as the answer
·思考命题思路,题目与原文背景的关系
·从整体问题入手解决具体问题
·通过已知信息猜测未知信息
完型测试点:
w 1. 阅读理解能力(精读)
·对文章整体的把握和理解;
·把握核心内容;
·把握主题和导向;
·把握上下句之间的逻辑关系;
·对一个句子内部的结构和意义的把握和理解
w 2. 完型文章的结构特点:
·结构完整,内容充实(明确的主题,完整的形式);
·体裁以议论文说明文为主,偶尔夹叙夹议
·总分对照的结构:总述高度概括,分述全面展开
w 3. 考察英语知识运用的能力
·语法: 20%~30%
·固定搭配: 10%
·词汇辨析和使用: 60%~70%
解题步骤:
一. 整体通读, 从整体上把握文章, 抓住中心线索
·重点读首句和首段；
·重点读每一段的首句；
·读尾段、尾句
·扫读中间的部分
二. 按段精读; 按段理解; 按段分析; 按段做题
三. 整体通读, 检查所选答案是否准确\合理
上下文间主要的逻辑关系
w 并列关系: and, andalso, or, neither…nor…; either…or…; similarly, likewise, in the same way, that is to say, rather than,
w 递进关系: then,besides, other than, in addition,moreover, further more, what is more
w 因果关系: because,for, since, as, therefore, hence, thus, so, consequently
w 转折关系: but,however, on the other hand, on the contrary, by contrast, unfortunately
w 让步关系: although,though, even though, even if, in spite of, despite, nevertheless
解题思路
测试重点分析
词汇知识
w (1)近义词
w (2)形近词
w (3)固定搭配
w (4)动词短语
句法结构
w 从句引导词的选择
w 特殊虚拟语气形式
w 非谓语动词的辨异
w 固定搭配中的选词
w 与比较有关的结构
w 从句的引导词问题
w 非谓语动词的辨异
w 代词指称
语篇能力
w 上下文的语气；
w 段落内的逻辑关系
w 篇章的连接：顺向连接——逆向连接
w 句子内部的连接：平行/因果/对比/转折

答题程序图示
w 常识+一般性英语知识——全面理解语篇主题作为猜测的依据
w 常识+主题+相关的语言知识——推断文章中被删除的信息
w 常识+主题+综合语言知识——判断还原后的文章是否完整合理

常识+一般性英语知识——全面理解语篇主题作为猜测的依据
w Comparisons were drawn betweenthe development of television in the 20th century and the diffusion of printingin the 15th and 16th centuries.
w Teachers need to be aware ofthe emotional, intellectual, and physical changes that young adults experience.
w Many theories concerning thecauses of juvenile delinquency (crimes committed by young people) focus eitheron the individual or on society as the major contributing influence.
常识+主题+相关的语言知识——推断文章中被删除的信息
w teenagers are especiallyself-conscious and need the 25___ that comes from achieving success andknowing that their accomplishments are 26___ by others.(2003)
25.     A. assistance         B. guidance           C. confidence        D.tolerance
26.    A. claimed            B. admired            C. ignored             D.surpassed
Other (37) ____causes of offensive acts include frustration or failure in school, theincreased (38) ____ of drugs and alcohol, and the growing (39) ____ of childabuse and child neglect. (2004)
37.    [A] assessable       [B] identifiable       [C]negligible  [D] incredible
38.    [A] expense          [B] restriction        [C]allocation        [D] availability
39.    [A] incidence               [B] awareness       [C] exposure         [D] popularity

完型填空总结
w １、动词的切入点
w 切入点：找到相关的信息点，通过分析这些已知信息点，猜出未知的信息点，如何找到相关的信息点即为切入点。
（１）在语法上、意义上、逻辑上看主谓搭配的合适性，即看主语
w Most theories of juvenile delinquencyhave focused on children from disadvantaged families, (26) ____ the fact thatchildren from wealthy homes also commit crimes. (2004)
26. [A] considering  [B]ignoring [C] highlighting    [D] discarding

w Changes in the social structuremay indirectly (29) ____ juvenile crime rates. (2004)
w 29. [A] affect          [B] reduce            [C] chock             [D]reflect
（２）看宾语，看动宾搭配的合适性
w At the same time it is agreedthat all American, whatever their origins, must learn to _____ themselves tothe American way of life.
A. adapt           B. modify              C. reform              D. convert

w We are _____ our artists withour refusal to entertain ourselves in our incompetent ways.
w A. slaughtering         B. stumbling   C. squeezing          D.wrecking
（３）根据动词后所跟的介词来判断
w For example, changes in theeconomy that (30) ____ to fewer job opportunities for youth and risingunemployment (31) ____ make gainful employment increasingly difficult toobtain.
w 30. [A] point                [B]lead                [C] come              [D] amount
w 31. [A] in general            [B] on average       [C] by contrast      [D] at length
w This does not mean that adultsmust accept irresponsibility. On the contrary, they can helpstudents acquire a sense of commitment by _____ for roles that are within theircapability and their attention spans and by having clearly statedrules.
w A. making    B.standing    C. planning   D. taking

2．连接
（1）. 连接词的考查
w Theories centering on theindividual suggest that children engage in criminal behavior (22) ____ theywere not sufficiently penalized for previous misdeeds or that they have learnedcriminal behavior through interactions with others.
w A. before          B. unless               C. until                  D.because
w Theories focusing on the roleof society that children commit crimes in response to their failure to riseabove their socioeconomic status (25) ____ as a rejection of middle-classvalues.
w A. or                B. but rather          C.but                   D. or else
w More families consist of oneparent households or two working parents; (34) ____, children are likely tohave less supervision at home (35) ____ was common in the traditional familypattern.
w 34. A. contrarily              B. consequently
w         C. similarly          D.simultaneously
w 35. A. than               B. that           C. which               D.as
w All these conditions tend toincrease the probability of a child committing a criminal act, (40) ____ adirect causal relationship has not yet been established.
w 40. A. provided        B. since          C.although            D. supposing

二. 因连接产生的逻辑关系的考查
1. It provides fewer jobsthan labor-intensive industry processes, and highly 1）_____ workers are needed to 2）_____ and repair the equipment.
w 1. A. gifted              B.skilled        C.trained                     D. versatile
w 2. A. keep                B.maintain     C. retain                D.protect

When the work is well done, a climate of accident-free operations is established, _____ time lost due to injuries is kept at a minimum. w A. where B. how C.what D. unless

Some press great emphasis on mechanical guarding, others stress safe work practices by _____ rules or regulations, _____ others depend on an emotional appeal to the workers. A. constituting B.aggravating C. observing D. justifying
w A. Some B. Many C.Even D. Still

innovation

A. deliciously B.genuinely C. presumably D. virtually

___61____,

—

_____62____

志愿的

，

____63___

__65___

61. A. On the other hand   B.On the one hand        C. Nevertheless      D. Therefore
62. A. if                           B. whether                    C. why                  D.who
63. A. turn to                   B. answer to                 C. respond to         D. act as
64. A. of                          B. to                                   C. toward                     D. concerning
65. A.determining            B. demanding                C. deciding            D. depending
Passage 1
In 1924 America’sNational Research Council sent to engineer to supervise a series of experimentsat a telephone-parts factory called the Hawhtore Plant near Chicago. It hoped they would learn howstop-floor lighting __1__ workers productivity. Instead，the studies ended__2__ giving their name to the“Hawhthome effect” the extremely influential idea the very__3__to beingexperimented upon changes subjects’ behavior.
The idea arose because of the__4__behavior of the women in the plant．According to __5__of the experiments．Their hourly output rose when lighting was increased，but also when it was dimmed. It did not __6__whatwas done in the experiment; __7__sometmg was changed, productivity rose . A(n)__8__ that they were being experimented upon seemed to be __9__to alterworkers' behavior __10__ itself.
After several decades，the same data were __11__to the econometric analysis. Hawthorneexperiments has another surprise store__12__the description on record，no systematic __13__was found that levels of productivity were related tochanges in lighting.
It turns out that peculiar way of conducting theexperiments may be have led to __14__interpretation of what happed．__15__，lighting was always changed on a Sunday, When work started again onMonday, output __16__ rose compared with the previous Saturday and __17__ torise for the next couple of days .__18__ , a comparison with data for weekswhen there was no experimentation showed that output always went up On Monday,workers __19__to be diligent for the first few days of the week in any case，before __20__a plateau and then slackening off. This suggests that thealleged “Hawthorneeffect” is hard to pin down



    1. [A] affected
      [B]achieved
      [C]extracted
      [D]restored
       2. [A]at
      [B]up
      [C]with
      [D]Off
       3. [A]truth
      [B]sight
      [C]act
      [D]proof
       4. [A]controversial
      [B]perplexing
      [C]mischievous
      [D]ambiguous
       5.[A]requirements
      [B]explanations
      [C]accounts
      [D]assessments
       6[A]conclude
      [B]matter
      [C]indicate
      [D]work
       7[A]as far as
      [B]for fear that
      [C]in case that
      [D]so long as
       8.[A]awareness
      [B]expectation
      [C]sentiment
      [D]illusion
       9.[A]suitable
      [B]excessive
      [C]enough
      [D]abundant
       10.[A]about
      [B]for
      [C]on
      [D]by
       11.[A]compared
      [B]shown
      [C]subjected
      [D]conveyed
       12.[A]contrary to
      [B]consistent with
      [C]parallel with
      [D]pearlier to
       13.[A]evidence
      [B]guidance
      [C]implication
      [D]source
       14.[A]disputable
      [B]enlightening
      [C]reliable
      [D]misleading
       15.[A]In contrast
      [B]For example
      [C]In consequence
      [D]As usual
       16.[A]duly
      [B]accidentally
      [C]unpredictably
      [D]suddenly
       17.[A]failed
      [B]ceased
      [C]started
      [D]continued
       18. [A] because
      [B]for
      [C]but
      [D]despite
       19. [A]attended
      [B]tended
      [C]contended
      [D]pretended
       20.[A]breaking
      [B]climbing
      [C]surpassing
      [D]hitting

Passage 2
Historically, humans get serious about avoidingdisasters only after one has just struck them. __1__ that logic, 2006 shouldhave been a breakthrough year for rational behavior. With the memory of 9/11still __2__ in their minds, Americans watched hurricane Katrina, the mostexpensive disaster in U.S.history, on __3__ TV. Anyone who didn’t know it before should have learned thatbad things can happen. And they are made __4__ worse by our willful blindnessto risk as much as our __5__ to work together before everything goes to hell.
Granted, someamount of delusion(错觉)is probably part of the __6__ condition. In A.D. 63, Pompeii was seriouslydamaged by an earthquake, and the locals immediately went to work __7__, in thesame spot-until they were buried altogether by a volcano eruption 16 yearslater. But a __8__ of the past year in disaster history suggests that modernAmericans are particularly bad at __9__ themselves from guaranteed threats. Weknow more than we __10__ did about the dangers we face. But it turns __11__that in times of crisis, our greatest enemy is __12__ the storm, the quake orthe __13__ itself. More often it is ourselves.
So what hashappened in the year that __14__ the disaster on the Gulf Coast?In New Orleans,the Army Corps of Engineers has worked day and night to rebuild the floodwalls. They have got the walls to __15__ they were before Katrina, more orless. That’s not __16__,we can now say with confidence. But it may be all __17__can be expected from one year of hustle(忙碌).
Meanwhile, New Orleans officialshave crafted a plan to use buses and trains to __18__ the sick and thedisabled. The city estimates that 15,000 people will need a __19__ out. However,state officials have not yet determined where these people will be taken. The__20__ with neighboring communities are on going and difficult.
1.    [A] To                  [B] By                  [C]On                 [D] For
2.    [A] fresh              [B] obvious           [C] apparent          [D] evident
3.    [A] visual              [B] vivid               [C] live                 [D]lively
4.    [A] little                [B] less                 [C]more              [D] much
5.    [A] reluctance       [B] rejection          [C] denial              [D]decline
6.    [A] natural            [B] world              [C]social              [D] human
7.    [A] revising           [B] refining           [C]rebuilding        [D] retrieving
8.    [A] review            [B] reminder         [C]concept          [D] prospect
9.    [A] preparing               [B] protesting        [C] protecting       [D] prevailing
10.  [A] never              [B] ever                [C]then                [D] before
11.  [A] up                  [B] down              [C] over                      [D]out
12.  [A] merely            [B] rarely              [C]incidentally      [D] accidentally
13.  [A] surge              [B] spur                [C]surf                [D] splash
14.  [A] ensued            [B] traced             [C]followed         [D] occurred
15.  [A] which             [B] where             [C]what               [D] when
16.  [A] enough           [B] certain            [C]conclusive       [D] final
17.  [A] but                 [B] as                   [C]that                [D] those
18.  [A] exile               [B] evacuate          [C]dismiss           [D] displace
19.  [A] ride                [B] trail                 [C]path                [D] track
20.  [A] conventions     [B] notifications     [C] communications [D] negotiations

Passage 3
According to BT’sfuturologist, Ian Pearson, these are among the developments scheduled for thefirst few decades of the new millennium(a period of 1，000 years), whensupercomputers will dramatically accelerate progress in all areas of life.
Pearson has __1__together to work of hundreds of researchers around the world to produce a __2__millennium technology calendar that gives the latest dates when we can expecthundreds of key __3__ and discoveries to take place. Some of the biggestdevelopments will be in medicine, including an __4__ life expectancy and dozensof artificial organs __5__ into use between now and 2040.
Pearson also__6__ a breakthrough in computer human links. "By linking __7__ to ournervous system, computers could pick up __8__ we feel and, hopefully, simulate__9__ too so that we can start to __10__ full sensory environments, rather likethe holidays in Total Recall or the Star Trek holodeck," he says.
But that, Pearsonpoints __11__, is only the start of man-machine __12__:"It will be thebeginning of the long process of integration that will __13__ lead to a fullyelectronic human before the end of the next century."__14__ his research,Pearson is able to put dates to most of the breakthroughs that can bepredicted. However, there are still no __15__ for when faster-than-light travelwill be __16__, or when human cloning will be perfected, or when time travelwill be possible.
      Buthe does __17__ social problems as a result of technological advances. A boom inneighborhood surveillance cameras will, for example, __18__ problems in 2010,while the arrival of synthetic __19__ robots will mean people may not be ableto __20__ between their human friends and the droids. And home appliances willalso become so smart that controlling and operating them will result in thebreakout of a new psychological disorder-kitchen rage.
1.    [A]taken               [B]pieced       [C]kept         [D]made
2.    [A]complicated      [B]delicate     [C]subtle       [D]unique
3.    [A]breakthroughs  [B]findings     [C]events      [D]incidents
4.    [A]expanded         [B]extended [C]enlarged   [D]enriched
5.    [A]being               [B]becoming  [C]carrying   [D]coming
6.    [A]schedules        [B]plans         [C]predicts    [D]designs
7.    [A]directly            [B]instantly    [C]precisely [D]automatically
8.    [A]that                 [B]how          [C]what        [D]all
9.    [A]thinking           [B]hearing      [C]sight        [D]feeling
10.   [A]form                [B]develop     [C]find         [D]undertake
11.   [A]out                  [B]at             [C]to            [D]toward
12.   [A]program           [B]production [C]experiment [D]integration
13.   [A]finally              [B]ultimately  [C]utterly      [D]absolutely
14.   [A]Through          [B]Though     [C]During     [D]By
15.   [A]forecasts          [B]articles      [C]stories     [D]meetings
16.   [A]advisable          [B]affordable  [C]available   [D]valuable
17.   [A]solve                      [B]arose               [C]exercise   [D]expect
18.   [A]confront          [B]cause        [C]witness    [D]collect
19.   [A]lovely              [B]likely  [C]lifelike      [D]lively
20.   [A]distinguish        [B]differ        [C]diagnose [D]deviate

Passage 4
Practically all people (21) a desire to predict their future (22) .People seem inclined to (23) this task using causal reasoning. First, wegenerally (24) that future circumstances are (25) caused or conditioned bypresent (26) . We learn that getting an education will (27) how much money weearn later in life and that swimming beyond the reef may bring an unhappy (28)with a shark.
       Second,people also learn that such (29) of cause and effect are probabilistic innature. That is, the effects occur more often when the causes occur than whenthe causes are (30) -but not always. (31), students learn that studying hard(32) good grades in most instances, but not every time. Science makes theseconcepts of causality and probability more explicit and (33) techniques fordealing (34) them more rigorously than does causal human inquiry. It sharpensthe skills we already have by making us more conscious, rigorous, and explicitin our inquiries.
    In looking atordinary human inquiry, we need to (35) between prediction and understanding.Often, we can make predictions without understanding. And often, even if wedon’t understand why, we are willing to act (36) the basis of a demonstratedpredictive ability.
       Whateverthe primitive drives or instincts that (37) human beings, satisfying themdepends heavily on the ability to predict future circumstances. The attempt topredict is often played in a (38) of knowledge and understanding. If you canunderstand why things are related to one another, why certain regular patterns(39), you can predict better than if you simply observe and remember thosepatterns. Thus, human inquiry aims (40) answering both “what” and “why”questions, and we pursue these goals by observing and figuring out.

1.    [A] exhibit            [ B] exaggerate     [C] examine          [D]exceed
2.    [A]contexts          [B]circumstances  [C]cases                      [D]intuitions
3.    [A]underestimate [B]undermine        [C]undertake        [D] undergo
4.    [A]recall               [B]recede              [C]reckon             [D]recognize
5.    [A]somehow         [B]somewhat               [C]someone          [D]something
6.    [A] one                 [B]ones                [C]one’s                     [D] oneself
7.    [A]effect              [B]affect               [C]affection          [D]decide
8.    [A]meeting            [B]occurrence       [C]encounter         [D]sighting
9.    [A]patterns           [B]designs            [C]arrangements    [D]pictures
10.  [A]absence           [B]absent              [C]accent             [D]access
11.  [A]Thus                [B]So that             [C]However          [D] In addition
12.  [A]producing               [B]produces          [C]produce           [D] produced
13.  [A]prevent            [B]produce           [C]provide            [D]predict
14.  [A]for                  [B]at                    [C]in                   [D] with
15.  [A]distinguish        [B]distinct             [C]distort              [D]distract
16.  [A]at                    [B]on                   [C]to                   [D] under
17.  [A]motion             [B]motive             [C]motivate           [D]activate
18.  [A]contour            [B]contact           [C]contest            [D] context
19.  [A]happen             [B]occur               [C]occupy            [D]incur
20.  [A]at                   [B]on                   [C]to                    [D] beyond

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第一章 考博英语阅读理解大纲要求

2. 阅读理解（40％）
本部分测试考生在规定时间内通过阅读获取信息的能力，即对阅读材料的细节、事实、要点、作者观点和态度的理解能力。题材包括社会、文化、史地、科普及人物传记等内容，体裁涉及叙事、议论、描述、说明和应用文等。该部分给出4篇约500单词的文章，每篇文章后面附5个问题，每个问题设四个备选答案。要求考生根据文章内容从每题选出一个最佳选项。

第二章考博英语阅读理解解题步骤

阅读理解文章均为500字左右的短文，测试考生的七种能力，语篇的理解能力和是否把握作者的推理过程。熟悉议论文、记叙文、说明文和应用文文章体裁特点、篇章结构，有利于分清主次，抓住重点，判断出考题中的正确选项。
议论文的特点是对客观事物进行分析和评论，重点放在论点及论证方面，主题往往比较明确，通常开头点明主题，表明作者的观点和态度，其后段落围绕主题展开。一篇短文如果有若干个论点，要弄清楚哪个是主论点、哪个是次论点或分论点以及主次论点之间的论证关系。议论文常见的推理方法有：归纳法：由个别到一般：先设前提，通过例证归纳出结论。演绎法：由—般到个别：先提出—般性的论断，再逐步提出支持该论断的证据，最后推出结论。阅读议论文的关键是要抓住作者的结论和观点，以及作者对具他观点的态度。
说明文是对客观事物的性质、特征、形状、构成、功能等进行介绍和解说。完全客观地描述，不带有个人感情色彩。说明文常见的几种写作方法有：下定义、举例证、析因果、分类别、作对比等。阅读说明文体裁的文章要把握短文的中心，掌握作者是从何角度、采用什么方法加以说明的，注意事实和数据。
短文一般有以下几种结构模式：
    1．现象——解释——意义。
    2．现象——后果——建议。
    3．问题——原因——解决。
    4．问题——例证——结论。
    5．理论——定义——举例。
    6．理论——重要性——做法。
    7．事物——特点——意义。
    8．事物——优缺点——结论。
    9．事物——别人观点——作者观点。
阅读时需抓住主题句。—般来讲，文章的第一段和最后一段是文章主题的阐明和总结，而每—段的第一句和最后一句又往往是该段的主题和总结。

解题步骤
三步走
1．第一步：通读全文，抓住中心。（不推荐采用先看题目后读文章的做法）
在此过程中，注意把握三个阅读原则：
⑴原则一：1∶1原则（通读时间与做题时间对等）
⑵原则二：首段原则（不要怕重复和回读）首段的作用：①中心段 ②抛砖引玉
⑶原则三：首末句原则，即除首段和末段，其余各段的首末句一定要读懂，其他各句正常阅读
2．第二步：仔细审题，返回原文。
3．第三步：重叠选项，得出答案。具体来讲，可以设原文意思为A，选项意思为B
若A=B，则B为正确答案；
若A、B不相关，则B不为正确答案，即原文没有提到的，一定不是答案；
若B为A的反面，即B与A矛盾，则B不为正确答案；
若A的内容包含B，则B为正确答案；
若B的内容包含A，则B不为正确答案，属于扩大范围的错误；
若A、B有交集不重叠，则B不为正确答案。
必须记住：选一个选项应有选的理由，不选一个选项也应有不选的理由。

Passage 1
The molecules of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere affect theheat balance of the Earth by acting as a one-way screen. Although thesemolecules allow radiation at visible wavelengths, where most of the energy ofsunlight is concentrated, to pass through, they absorb some of thelonger-wavelength, infrared emissions radiated from the Earth's surface,radiation that would otherwise be transmitted back into space. For the Earth tomaintain a constant aver-age temperature, such emissions from the planet must balanceincoming solar radiation. If there were no car-bon dioxide in the atmosphere,heat would escape from the Earth much more easily. The surface temperaturewould be so much lower that the oceans might be a solid mass of ice.
Today, however, the potential problem is too much carbon dioxide.The burning of fossil fuels and the clearing of forests have increasedatmospheric carbon dioxide by about 15 percent in the last hundred years, andwe continue to add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Could the increase incarbon dioxide cause a global rise in average temperature, and could such arise have serious consequences for human society?
Mathematical models that allow us to calculate the rise intemperature as a function of the increase indicate that the answer is probablyyes. Under present conditions a temperature-of--18℃can be observed at an altitude of 5 to 6 kilometers above theEarth. Below this altitude (called the radiating level), the temperatureincreases by about 6℃ perkilometer approaching the Earth's surface, where the average temperature isabout 15℃. An increase in the amount of carbondioxide means that there are more molecules of carbon dioxide to absorbinfrared radiation. As the capacity of the atmosphere to absorb infraredradiation increases, the radiating level and the temperature of the surfacemust rise. One mathematical model predicts that doubling the atmospheric carbondioxide would raise the global mean surface temperature by 2.5℃.This model assumes that the atmosphere's relative humidity remains constant andthe temperature decreases with altitude at a rate of 6.5℃per kilometer. The assumption of constant relative humidity is important,because water vapor in the atmosphere is another efficient absorber ofradiation at infrared wavelengths. Because warm air can hold more moisture thancool air, the relative humidity will be constant only if the amount of watervapor in the atmosphere increases as the temperature rises. Therefore, moreinfrared radiation would be absorbed and reradiated back to the Earth'ssurface. The resultant warming at the surface could be expected to melt snowand ice, reducing the Earth's reflectivity. More solar radiation would then beabsorbed, leading to a further increase in temperature.

1. The primarypurpose of the passage is to
(A) warn of thedangers of continued burning of fossil fuels
(B) discuss thesignificance of increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
(C) explain how aconstant temperature is maintained on the Earth's surface
(D) describe theways in which various atmospheric and climatic conditions contribute to theEarth's weather

2. According tothe passage, the greatest part of the solar energy that reaches the Earth is
(A) concentratedin the infrared spectrum
(B) concentratedat visible wavelengths
(C) absorbed bycarbon dioxide molecules
(D) absorbed byatmospheric water vapor

3. According tothe passage, atmospheric carbon dioxide performs all of the following functionsEXCEPT
(A) absorbingradiation at visible wavelengths
(B) absorbing outgoingradiation from the Earth
(C) helping toretain heat near the Earth's surface
(D) helping tomaintain a constant average temperature on the Earth's surface

4. Which of thefollowing best describes the author's attitude toward the increasing amount ofcarbon dioxide in the atmosphere and its consequences?
(A) Incredulous
(B) Objective yetconcerned
(C) Interested butskeptical
(D) Angry yetresigned

5. According tothe passage, which of the following is true of the last hundred years?
(A) Fossil fuelswere burned for the first time.
(B) Greateramounts of land were cleared than at any time before.
(C) The averagetemperature at the Earth's surface has become 2℃cooler.
(D) The amount ofcarbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased measurably.
Passage 2
The historian Frederick J. Turner wrote in the 1890's that theagrarian discontent that had been developing steadily in the United States sinceabout 1870 had been precipitated by the closing of the internal frontier--thatis, the depletion of available new land needed for further expansion of theAmerican farming system. Not only was Turner's thesis influential at the time,it was later adopted and elaborated by other scholars, such as John D. Hicks inThe Populist Revolt (1931). Actually, however, new lands were taken up forfarming in the United Statesthroughout and beyond the nineteenth century. In the 1890's, when agrariandiscontent had become most acute, 1,100,000 new farms were settled, which was500,000 more than had been settled during the previous decade. After 1890,under the terms of the Homestead Act and its successors, more new land wastaken up for farming than had been taken up for this purpose in the UnitedStates up until that time. It is true that a high proportion of the newlyfarmed land was suitable only for grazing and dry farming, but agriculturalpractices had become sufficiently advanced to make it possible to increase theprofitability of farming by utilizing even these relatively barren lands.
The emphasis given by both scholars and statesmen to the presumeddisappearance of the American frontier helped to obscure the great importanceof changes in the conditions and consequences of international trade thatoccurred during the second half of the nineteenth century. In 1869 the SuezCanal was opened and the first transcontinental railroad in the United Stateswas completed. An extensive network of telegraph and telephone communicationswas spun: Europe was connected by submarine cable with the United States in 1866 and with South America in 1874. By about 1870 improvements in agriculturaltechnology made possible the full exploitation of areas that were most suitablefor extensive farming on a mechanized basis. Huge tracts of land were beingsettled and farmed in Argentina,Australia, Canada, and in the American West, and theseareas were joined with one another and with the countries of Europeinto an interdependent market system.
As a consequence, agrarian depressions no longer were local ornational in scope, and they struck several nations whose internal frontiers hadnot vanished or were not about to vanish. Between the early 1870's and the1890's, the mounting agrarian discontent in America paralleled the almostuninterrupted decline in the prices of American agricultural products onforeign markets. Those staple-growing farmers in the United States who exhibited thegreatest discontent were those who had become most dependent on foreign marketsfor the sale of their products. Insofar as Americans had been deterred fromtaking up new land for farming, it was because market conditions had made thisperiod a perilous time in which to do so.

6. The author isprimarily concerned with
(A) showing that acertain interpretation is better supported by the evidence than is analternative explanation
(B) developing analternative interpretation by using sources of evidence that formerly had beenunavailable
(C) questioning theaccuracy of the evidence that most scholars have used to counter the author'sown interpretation
(D) reviewing theevidence that formerly had been thought to obscure a valid interpretation

7. According tothe author, changes in the conditions of international trade resulted in an
(A)underestimation of the amount of new land that was being famed in the United States
(B) emphasis onthe importance of market forces in determining the prices of agriculturalproducts
(C) overexpansionof the world transportation network for shipping agricultural products
(D) extension ofagrarian depressions beyond national boundaries

8. The authorimplies that the change in the state of the American farmer's morale during thelatter part of the nineteenth century was traceable to the American farmer'sincreasing perception that the
(A) development ofthe first transcontinental railroad in the United States occurred at theexpense of the American farmer
(B) Americanfarming system was about to run out of the new farmland that was required forits expansion.
(C) prices ofAmerican agricultural products were deteriorating especially rapidly ondomestic markets
(D) proceeds fromthe sales of American agricultural products on foreign markets wereunsatisfactory

9. According to thepassage, which of the following occurred prior to 1890?
(A) Technologicaladvances made it fruitful to farm extensively on a mechanized basis.
(B) The HomesteadAct led to an increase in the amount of newly farmed land in the United States.
(C) The manufacturersof technologically advanced agricultural machinery rapidly increased theirmarketing efforts.
(D) Direct linesof communication were constructed between the United States and South America.

10. The authorprovides information concerning newly farmed lands in the United Statesas evidence in direct support of which of the following?
(A) A proposal byFrederick J. Turner that was later disputed by John D. Hicks
(B) An elaborationby John D. Hicks of a thesis that formerly had been questioned by Frederick J.Turner
(C) Theestablished view that was disputed by those scholars who adopted the thesis ofFrederick J. Turner
(D) The view thatthe American frontier did not become closed during the nineteenth century orsoon thereafter
Passage 3
Ragtime is a musical form that synthesizes folk melodies and musicaltechniques into a brief quadrille like structure, designed to be played—exactlyas written on the piano. A strong analogy exists between European composerslike Ralph Vaughan Williams, Edward Grieg, and Anton Dvorak who combined folktunes and their own original materials in larger compositions and the pioneerragtime composers in the United  States. Composers like Scott Joplin andJames Scott were in a sense collectors or musicologists, collecting dance andfolk music in Black communities and consciously shaping it into brief suites oranthologies called piano rags.
It has sometimes been charged that ragtime is mechanical. Forinstance, Wilfred Mellers comments, "rags were transferred to the pianolaroll and, even if not played by a machine, should be played like a machine,with meticulous precision." However, there is no reason to assume thatragtime is inherently mechanical simply because commercial manufacturersapplied a mechanical recording method to ragtime, the only way to record pianosat that date. Ragtime's is not a mechanical precision, and it is not precisionlimited to the style of performance. It arises from ragtime's following awell-defined form and obeying simple rules within that form.
The classic formula for the piano rag disposes three to five themesin sixteen-bar strains, often organized with repeats. The rag opens with abright, memorable strain or theme, followed by a similar theme, leading to atrio of marked lyrical character, with the structure concluded by a lyricalstrain that parallels the rhythmic developments of the earlier themes. The aimof the structure is to rise from one theme to another in a stair-step manner,ending on a note of triumph or exhilaration.
Typically, each strain is divided into two 8-bar segments that areessentially alike, so the rhythmic-melodic unit of ragtime is only eight barsof 2/4 measure. Therefore, themes must be brief with clear, sharp melodicfigures. Not concerned with development of musical themes, the ragtime composerinstead sets a theme down intact, in finished form, and links it to variousrelated themes.
Tension in ragtime compositions arises from a polarity between twobasic ingredients: a continuous bass—called by jazz musicians a boom-chickbass-in the pianist's left hand, and its melodic, syncopated counterpart in theright hand.
Ragtime remains distinct from jazz both as an instrumental style andas a genre. Ragtime style stresses a pattern of repeated rhythms, not theconstant inventions and variations of jazz. As a genre, ragtime requires strictattention to structure, not inventiveness or virtuosity. It exists as atradition, a set of conventions, a body of written scores, separate from theindividual players associated with it. In this sense ragtime is more akin tofolk music of the nineteenth century than to jazz.

11. Which of thefollowing best describes the main purpose of the passage?
(A) To contrastragtime music and jazz
(B) To acknowledgeand counter significant adverse criticisms of ragtime music
(C) To defineragtime music as an art form and describe its structural characteristics
(D) To explore thesimilarities between ragtime music and certain European musical compositions

12. According tothe passage, each of the following is a characteristic of ragtime compositionsthat follow the classic ragtime formula EXCEPT
(A) syncopation
(B) well-definedmelodic figures
(C) risingrhythmic-melodic intensity
(D) fulldevelopment of musical themes

13. According tothe passage, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Anton Dvorak, and Scott Joplin are similarin that they all
(A) conductedresearch into musicological history
(B) wrote originalcompositions based on folk tunes
(C) collected andrecorded abbreviated piano suites
(D) explored the relationsbetween Black music and continental folk music

14. The authorrejects the argument that ragtime is a mechanical music because that argument
(A) overlooks theprecision required of the ragtime player
(B) does notaccurately describe the sound of ragtime pianola music
(C) confuses themeans of recording and the essential character of the music
(D) exaggeratesthe influence of the performance style of professional ragtime players on thereputation of the genre

15. It can beinferred from the passage that the essential nature of ragtime has beenobscured by commentaries based on
(A) the wayragtime music was first recorded
(B)interpretations of ragtime by jazz musicians
(C) the dancefashions that were contemporary with ragtime
(D) earlyreviewers' accounts of characteristic structure
Passage 4
Roger Rosenblatt's book BlackFiction, in attempting to apply literary rather than sociopoliticalcriteria to its subject, successfully alters the approach taken by mostprevious studies. As Rosenblatt notes, criticism of Black writing has oftenserved as a pretext for expounding on Black history. Addison Gayle's recentwork, for example, judges the value of Black fiction by overtly politicalstandards, rating each work according to the notions of Black identity which itpropounds. ] R( =)
Although fiction assuredly springs from political circumstances, itsauthors react to those circumstances in ways other than ideological, andtalking about novels and stories primarily as instruments of ideologycircumvents much of the fictional enterprise. Rosenblatt's literary analysisdiscloses affinities and connections among works of Black fiction which solelypolitical studies have overlooked or ignored. 7JjTm^bu
Writing acceptable criticism of Black fiction, how-ever, presupposesgiving satisfactory answers to a number of questions. First of all, is there asufficient reason, other than the racial identity of the authors, to grouptogether works by Black authors? Second, how does Black fiction make itselfdistinct from other modern fiction with which it is largely contemporaneous?Rosenblatt shows that Black fiction constitutes a distinct body of writing thathas an identifiable, coherent literary tradition. Looking at novels written byBlacks over the last eighty years, he discovers recurring concerns and designsindependent of chronology. These structures are thematic, and they spring, notsurprisingly, from the central fact that the Black characters in these novelsexist in a predominantly White culture, whether they try to conform to thatculture of rebel against it. z@dHXj )
Black Fiction does leave some aesthetic questions open. Rosenblatt'sthematic analysis permits consider-able objectivity; he even explicitly statesthat it is not his intention to judge the merit of the various works-yet hisreluctance seems misplaced, especially since an attempt to appraise might haveled to interesting results. For instance, some of the novels appear to bestructurally diffuse. Is this a defect, or are the authors working out of, ortrying to forge, a different kind of aesthetic? In addition, the style of someBlack novels, like Jean Toomer's Cane, verges on expressionism or surrealism;does this technique provide a counterpoint to the prevalent theme that portraysthe fate against which Black heroes are pitted, a theme usually conveyed bymore naturalistic modes of expression? \:Q)Ef
In spite of such omissions, what Rosenblatt does include in hisdiscussion makes for an astute and worthwhile study. Black Fiction surveys awide variety of novels, bringing to our attention in the process somefascinating and little-known works like James Weldon Johnson's Autobiography ofan Ex-Colored Man. Its argument is tightly constructed, and its forthright,lucid style exemplifies levelheaded and penetrating criticism. -(dc1?COi
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16. The author ofthe passage objects to criticism of Black fiction like that by Addison Gayle becauseit ZPHB$]ri
(A) ignores theinterplay between Black history and Black identity displayed in such fiction )jvYJ9s
(B) misinterpretsthe ideological content of such fiction M1^pf<!s
(C) misunderstandsthe notions of Black identity contained in such fiction oQAD 3a
(D) substitutespolitical for literary criteria in evaluating such fiction sRqFsj}3e
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17. The author ofthe passage is primarily concerned with rF'q\tJDz
(A) evaluating thesoundness of a work of criticism }Til $TT%H
(B) comparingvarious critical approaches to a subject +TL5yuA
(C) discussing thelimitations of a particular kind of criticism r1f##
(D) summarizingthe major points made in a work of criticism #A+ dj| b
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18. The author ofthe passage believes that Black Fiction would have been improved had Rosenblatt [WW3'= e^
(A) assessed therelative literary merit of the novels he analyzes thematically _46 y
(B) attempted tobe more objective in his approach to novels and stories by Black authors R^4JM,v9x`
(C) explored ingreater detail the recurrent thematic concerns of Black fiction throughout itshistory ]hRCB=G
(D) established abasis for placing Black fiction within its own unique literary tradition ]y:2O P
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19. The author'sdiscussion of Black Fiction can be best described as u[k0z!p_ c
(A) pedantic andcontentious hV_bm@f/y
(B) critical butadmiring lcO;3CrJ!
(C) ironic anddeprecating [z=KHk
(D) argumentativebut unfocused u 6A!Sw
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20. The author ofthe passage refers to James Weldon Johnson's Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Manmost probably in order to xvU@,bzz
(A) point outaffinities between Rosenblatt's method of thematic analysis and earliercriticism EbXWCD
(B) clarify thepoint about expressionistic style made earlier in the passage :%!`R72
(C) qualify theassessment of Rosenblatt's book made in the first paragraph of the passage ;&=c@>!xP#
(D) give aspecific example of one of the accomplishments of Rosenblatt's work PaIE=Q4gJ
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