北京师范大学2007考博英语试卷

北京师范大学 2007 年博士生入学考试英语试题
I. Listening Comprehension (15 points)
Section A
Directions: There are five statements in this section. Each statement will be spoken
only' once. When you hear a statement, read the four choices given and choose the
one which is closest in meaning to the statement you have heard by marking the
corresponding letter A, B, C, or D on the ANSVER SHEET with a single line through
the center.
1.
A. He is in a drug store.
B. He is at a department store.
C. He is at home.
D. He is at his doctor's office.
2.
A. I missed in3' train because you stopped me.
B. You made me forget what I was saving
C. You looked so deep in thought that I didn't want to bother you.
D. You told me never to interrupt you.
3.
A Sally drove back and forth to work twice today
B. Sally took long time to do her work.
C. Sally took her lunch with her to work.
D. Sally usually gets to work in much less time.
4.
A. If you audit a course, you don't have to take the tests.
B. You have to take a test if you want to add another course.
C. Of course you need to buy some textbooks.
D. It is not necessary to order a textbook.
5.
A. The speaker's salary is $250.
B. The speaker's salary is $1000.
C. The speaker's salary is $1100.
D. The speaker's salary is $ 275.
Section B
Directions: In this section, you will hear five short conversations. At the end of
each conversation, a question will be asked about what was said. Both the conversation
and the question will be spoken only once. After each question there will be a pause.
During the pause, you must read the four choices marked A, B, C and D, and decide which is the best answer. Then mark the corresponding letter on the ANSWER SHEET with a single line through the center.
6.
A. Clean up her room
B. Get her report back.
C. Not wait for him past noon.
D. Not worry about her raincoat.
7.
A. It was probably Mr. Brown's phone number that the woman wrote down.
B. it was just an hour ago that the man met Mr. Brown.
C. The woman forgot to write down the phone number.
D. The woman needed a sheet of paper to put down the number.
8.
A. Someone who is in charge of hunting.
B. A boss of a company.
C. A job-seeking advisor.
D. Someone who is in charge of looking for talents for a company.
9.
A. The woman is not careful at all this time.
B. No matter how careful one can be, it is not enough
C. The woman is most careful this time.
D. The woman has never been careful.
10.
A. Ton: stayed in a room on the second floor for an hour.
B. Nobody but the woman noticed that Tom was absent.
C. Tom was absent when the discussion was held. "~
D. Tom stayed in Room 302 for an hour.
Section C
Directions: In this section, you will hear an interview. Look at the five statements
for this part on your test paper and decide if you think each statement is true or
false while you are listening to the interview. If you think the answer is true, mark
A, if you think the answer is false, mark B on the e\NS\VER SHEET with a single line
through the center.
11. Xiang zhen has lived in the United States since she was ten years old.
12. In Korea, the American gesture for "come" is used :o call dogs.
13. When talking to an older person or someone with a higher social position.
Koreans traditionally look at the person's feet.
14. Between males and females, direct eye contact is a sign of attraction,
15. After many years in the United States. Xiangzhen's body language is still
completely Korean.

II. Reading Comprehension (30 points)
Directions: Read the following passages carefully end then select the best answer
from the four choices marked A, B, C, and D by marking the corresponding letter on
the Answer Sheet with a single line through the center.
1
Since the first brain scanner was constructed several years ago, computed
tomography or computed medical imagery, has become fairly widely used. Its rapid
acceptance is due to the fact that it has overcome several of the drawbacks of
conventional X-ray technology.
To begin with, conventional two-dimensional X-ray pictures cannot show all of
the information contained in a three-dimensional object. Things at different depths
aresuper imposed, causing confusion to the viewer. Computed tomography can give
three-dimensional information. The computer is able to reconstruct pictures of the
body's interior by measuring the varying intensities of X-ray beams passing through
sections of the body from hundreds of different angles. Such pictures are based on
series of thin "'slices".
In addition, conventional X-ray generally differentiates only between bone and
air, as in the chest and lungs. They cannot distinguish soft tissues or variations
in tissues. The liver and pancreas are not discernible at all, and certain other organs
max only be rendered visible through the use of radio paque dye. Since computed
tomography is much more sensitive, the soft tissues of the kidneys or the liver can
be seen and clearly differentiated. This technique can also accurately measure
different degrees of X-ray absorption, facilitating the study of the nature of"
tissue.
A third problem with conventional X-ray methods is their inability Io measure
quantitatively the separate densities of the individual substances through which the
X-ray has passed. Only the mean absorption of all the tissues is recorded. This is
not a problem with computed tomography. It can accurately locate a tumor and
subsequently monitor the progress of radiation treatment, so that in addition to its
diagnostic capabilities, it can play a significant role in therapy.
16. Conventional X-rays mainly show the difference between
A. bone and air B. liver and pancreas
C. muscle and other body tissues D. heart and lungs

17. What kind of view is made possible by contiguous cross sections of the body?
A. Two-dimensional. B. Three-dimensional.
C. Animated. D. Intensified.
18. It can be inferred form the passage that. compared to conventional X-ray
techniques, computed tomography is more
A. compact B. rapid
C. economical D. informative
19. what is the author's attitude toward this new technique?
A. Cautious. B. Tolerant.
C. Enthusiastic. D. Critical.
20. According to the passage, computed tomography can be used for all of the
following EXCEPT
A. monitoring a patient's disease B. diagnosing disorders
C. locating tumors D. reconstructing damaged tissues
Passage 2
Because early man viewed illness as divine punishment and healing
as purification, medicine and religion were inextricably, linked for centuries.
This notion is apparent in the origin of our word "pharmacy," which comes
from the Greek pharmakon, meaning "purification through purging."
By 3500 B.C., the Sumerians in the Tigris-Euphrates valley had
developed virtually all of our modern methods of administering drugs. They
used gargles inhalations, pills, lotions, ointments, and plasters. The first
drug catalog, or p harmacopoeia, was written at that time by an unknown
Sumerian physician. Preserved in cuneiform script on a single clay' tablet are
the names of dozens of drugs to treat ailments that still afflict us today.
The Egyptians added to the ancient medicine chest. The Ebers Papyrus.
a scroll d a t i n g f r o m 1 9 0 0 B . C . a n d n a m e d a f t e r t h e G e rman Egyptologist
George Ebers. reveals the trial-and-error know-how acquired by early
Egyptian physicians. To relieve indigestion, a chew of peppermint leaves and
carbonates (known today. As antacids) was prescribed, and to numb the pain of
tooth extraction, Egyptian doctors temporarily stupefied a patient with ethyl
alcohol.
The scroll also provides a rare glimpse into the hierarchy of ancient drug
preparation. The "'chief of the preparers of drugs" was the equivalent of
a head pharmacist, who supervised the "'collectors of drugs." field workers,
who gathered essential minerals and herbs. The "'preparers" aides" (technicians)

dried and pulverized ingredients, which were blended according to certain
formulas by' the "'preparers."
And the "conservator of drugs" oversaw the storehouse where local and
imported mineral, herb, and animal-organ ingredients were kept.
By the seventh century B.C.. the Greeks had adopted a sophisticated
mind-body view of medicine. They- believed that a physician must pursue the
diagnosis and treatment of the physical causes of disease within a scientific
framework, as well as cure the supernatural components involved. Thus, the
early, Greek physician emphasized something of a holistic approach to health,
even if the suspected "mental" causes of disease were not recognized as stress
and depression but interpreted as curses from displeased deities.
The modern era of pharmacology began in the sixteenth century, ushered
in by' the first major discoveries in chemistry. The understanding of how
chemicals interact to produce certain effects within the body would
eventually remove much of the guesswork and magic from medicine.
Drugs had been launched on a scientific course, but centuries "would pass
before superstition was displaced by' scientific fact. One major reason was that
physicians. unaware of the existence of disease-causing pathogens ..such as
bacteria and viruses, continued to dream up imaginary causative evils .And'
though new chemical compounds emerged, their effectiveness in treating
disease was still based largely on trial and error.
Many standard, common drugs in the medicine chest developed in this
trial-and-error environment. Such is the complexity of disease and human
biochemistry that even today, despite enormous strides in medical science, many of
the latest sophisticate additions to our medicine chest shelves were accidental
finds.
21. The author cites the literal definition of the Greek word pharmakon in the first
paragraph in orderto
A. show that ancient civilization had an advanced form of medical science
B. point out that man}' of the beliefs of ancient civilizations are still held today
C. illustrate that early man thought recovery from illness was linked to internal
cleansing
D. emphasize the primitive nature of Greek medical science
22. According to the passage, the seventh-century Greeks' view of medicine differed
from that of the Sumerians in that the Greeks
A. discovered more advanced chemical applications of drugs
B. acknowledged both the mental and physical roots of illness

C. established a rigid hierarchy for the preparation of drugs
D. attributed disease to psychological, rather than physical, causes
23. In Paragraph 5, the word "holistic'" most nearly' means
A. integrated B. religious
C. modern D. physiological
24. The passage indicates that advances in medical science during the modern era of
pharmacology may have been delayed by,
A. a lack of understanding of he origins of disease
B. a shortage of chemical treatments for disease
C. an inaccuracy in pharmaceutical preparation
D. an overemphasis on the psychological causes of disease
25. In the final paragraph, the author makes which of the following observations about
scientific discovery?
A. Human biochemistry is such a complex science that important discoveries are
uncommon.
B. Many cures for common diseases have yet to be discovered.
C. Trial and error is the best avenue to scientific discovery.
D. Chance events have led to the discovery of many modem drugs.
Passage 3
When imaginative men turn their eyes towards space and wonder whether life exists
in any' part of it, they may cheer themselves by remembering that life need not
resemble closely the life that exists on Earth. Mars looks like tile only planet where
life like ours could exist, and even this is doubtful. But there may be miler kinds
of life based on other kinds of chemistry and they may multiply on Venus us or Jupiter.
At leas we cannot prove at present that they do not.
Even more interesting is the possibility that life on their planets may be in
a more advanced stage of ev0Iution. Present-day man is in a peculiar and probably
temporary stage. His individual units retain a strong sense of personality. They are,
in fact, still capable under favorable circumstances of leading individual lives.
But man's societies are already sufficiently.' developed to have enormously more
power and effectiveness than the individuals have.
It is no1 likely that this transitional situation wit! continue very tong or the
evolutionary time scale. Fifty thousand ,years from now man's societies may have
become so close-knit that the individuals retain no sense of separate personality.
Then little distinction will remain between the organic parts of the multiple organism
and the inorganic parts (machines) that have been constructed by it. A million years

further on man and his machines may' have merged as closely as the muscles of the
human body and the nerve cells that set them in motion.
The explorers~ of space should be prepared for some such situation. If they.
Arrive on a foreign planet that has reached an advanced stage (and this is by' no
means impossible), they' may find it being inhabited by a single large organism
composed of many closely cooperating units.
The units may be "'secondary,'" machines created millions of years ago by a
previous form of life and given the will and ability' to survive and reproduce. They
may be built entirely of metals and other durable materials, if this is the case,
they may be much more tolerant of their environment multiplying under conditions that
would destroy immediately any organism made of carbon compound and dependent on the
familiar carbon cycle.
Such creatures might be relics of a past age, many millions of years ago, when
their planet was favorable to the origin of life or they might be immigrants from
a favored planet
26 What does the word "cheer" (Para. 1, Line 2) imply?
A. Imaginative men are sure of success in finding life on other planets.
B. Imaginative men are delighted to find life on other planets.
C. Imaginative men are happy to find a different kind of life existing on other
planets.
D. imaginative mea can be pleased with the idea that there might exist different forms
of life on other planets.
27. Humans on Earth are characterized by
A their existence as free and separate beings
B. their capability of living under favorable conditions
C. their great power and effectiveness
D. their strong desire for living in a close-knit society
28. According to this passage, some people believe that eventually __
A. human societies will be much more cooperative
B. man will live in a highly organized world
C. machines will take control over man
D. living beings will disappear from Earth
29. Even most imaginative people have to admit that __
A. human societies are as advanced as those on some other planets
B. planets other than Earth are not suitable for life like ours to stay,
C. it is difficult to distinguish between organic parts and inorganic parts of the
human body

D. organisms are more creative than machines
30. It seems that the writer
A. is interested in the imaginary life forms
B. is eager to find a different form of life
C. is certain of the existence of a new life form
D. is critical of the imaginative people
Passage 4
Education is one of the key, words of our time. A man without an education, many
of us believe, is at: unfortunate victim of unfortunate circumstances deprived of
one of the greatest twentieth-century opportunities. Convinced of the importance of
education, modern states ‘invest', in institutions of learning to get back
"interest" in the form of a large group of enlightened young men and women who are
potential leaders. Education. with its cycles of instruction so care fully worked
out, punctuated by text-books--those purchasable wells of wisdom--what would
civilization be like without its benefits?
So much is certain: that we would have doctors and preachers, lawyers and
defendants, marriages and birth; but our spiritual outlook would be different. We
would lay less stress on "facts and figures" and more on a good memory, on applied
psychology,, and on the capacity of a man to get along with his fellow-citizens. If
our educational system were fashioned after its bookless past we would have the most
democratic form of "college" imaginable. Among the people whom we like to call savages
all knowledge inherited by tradition is shared by all; it is taught to every member
of the tribe sc that in this respect everybody is equally, equipped for life.
It is the ideal condition of the "equal start" which only our most progressive
Forms of modern education try, to regain. In primitive cultures the obligation to
seek and to receive the traditional instruction is binding to all. There are no
"illiterates"—if the term can be, applied to peoples without a script while our
own compulsory school attendance became law in necessary in 1642, in France in
1806, and in England in, 1976, and is still non-existent in a number of "civilized"
nations. This shows how long it was before we deemed it necessary to make sure thin
all on knowledge accumulated by the "happy few" during the past centuries.
Education in the wilderness is not a matter of monetary means. All are entitled
to an equal start. There is none of the hurry which, in our society, often hampers
the full development of a growing personality. There, a child grows up under the
ever-present attention of his parents; therefore the jungles and the savages know
of no "juvenile delinquency". No necessity of making a living away from home results
in neglect of children, and no father is confronted with his inability to "buy" an
education for his child.

31. The best title for this passage is __
A. The Significance of Education
B. Educational Investment and Its Returns
C. Education: A Comparison of Its Past and Its Present
D. Education in the Wilderness
32. The word "interest" in paragraph one means __
A. capital profit got back from the investment
B. the things young people are interested in
C. the well-educated and successful young men and women
D. the well-educated young people with leadership potential
33. The author seems
A. against the education in the very early historic times
B. positive about our present educational instruction
C. in favor of the educational practice in primitive cultures
D. quite happy to see an equal start for everyone
34. The passage implies that __
A. some families now can hardly afford to send their children to school
B. everyone today' has an equal opportunity in education
C. every, country invests heavily in education
D. we are not very certain whether preachers are necessary or not
35. According to the passage, which of the following statement is true?
A. One without education today has no opportunities.
B. We have not yet decided on our education models.
C. Compulsory schooling is legal obligation in several countries now.
D. Our spiritual outlook is better now than before.
Passage 5
Many, zoos in the United States have undergone radical changes in the
philosophy and design. All possible care is taken to reduce the stress of living in
captivity. Cages and grounds are landscaped to make gorillas feel immersed in
vegetation, as they would be in a Congo jungle. Zebras gaze across vistas arranged
to appear (to zoos visitors, at least) nearly as broad as an African plain.
Yet, strolling past animals in zoo after zoo. I have noticed the signs
of hobbled energy that has found no release--large cats pacing in a repetitive
pattern, primates rocking for hours in one corner of a cage. These truncated
movements are known as cage stereotypes, and usually these movements bring
about no obvious physical or emotional effects in the captive animal. Many animal
specialists believe they, are more

troubling to the people who watch than to the animals themselves. Such
restlessness is an unpleasant reminder that--despite the careful interior
decoration and clever optical illusions--zoo animals are prisoners, being kept in
elaborate cells.
The rationale for breeding endangered animals in zoos is nevertheless
compelling. Once a species falls below a certain number, it is beset by
inbreeding and other processes that nudge it closer and closer to extinction.
If the animal also faces the whole-scale
destruction of its habitat, its one hope for survival lies in being
transplanted to some haven of safely, usually a cage. In serving as trusts for rare
fauna. zoos have committed millions of dollars to caring for animals. Many
zoo managers have given great consideration to the psychological health of the
animals in their care. Yet the more I learned about animals bred in enclosures,
the more I wondered how their sensibilities differed from those of animals raised
to roam free.
In the wild, animals exist in a world of which we have little understanding.
They may communicate with their kind through "language" that are
indecipherable by h u m a n s . A f e w s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t s o m e s p ec i es p erceive
l a n d s c a p e s m u c h differently than people do; for example, they max: be keenly
attuned to movement on the faces of mountains or across the broad span of grassy
plains. Also, their social
structures may be complex and integral to their well-being. %me scientists
believe they may even develop cultural traditions that are key to the survival of
populations.
But when an animal is confined, it lives within a vacuum. If it is
accustomed to covering long distances in its searches for food, it grows lazy or
bored. It can make no decisions for itself; its intelligence and wild skills
atrophy from lack of use. becomes, in a sense, one of society's charges,
completely dependent on humans for' nourishment and care.
How might an animal species be changed--subtly, imperceptibly--by
spending several generations in a per:? I posed that question to the curator of
birds at the San Diego Wild Animal Park, which is a breeding center for the
endangered California condor. "I always have to chuckle when someone asks me
that," the curator replied.
"Evolution has shaped the behavior of the condor for hundreds of years. If you
think I can change it in a couple of generations, you're giving me a lot of credit."
Recently the condor was reintroduced into the California desert---only a
moment after its capture, in evolutionary terms. Perhaps the curator was right;
perhaps the wild nature of the birds would emerge unscathed, although I was not
convinced. But what of species that will spend decades or centuries in
confinement before they are released?
36. The primary purpose of the passage is to

A. highlight the improvements in the conditions of American zoos
B. examine behavioral traits of animals living in zoos
C. raise concerns about the confinement of wild animals in zoos
D. suggest alternative ways of protecting endangered species
37. The primary function of the second paragraph is to show that
A. wild animals adapt to their cages by modifying their movements
B. confined animals are not being seriously harmed
C. zoos are designed with the reactions of spectators in mind
D. people are overly sensitive to seeing animals in captivity
38. In the fourth paragraph, the author's most important point is that animals in
the wild
A. perceive landscapes differently than do animals in captivity
B. have modes of communicating that are very similar to those of humans
C. are likely to live longer than animals kept in zoos
D. depend on the care and support of others of their species
39. Which of the following best describes the relationship between the fourth
paragraph and the fifth paragraph?
A. The fourth paragraph presents a question that is answered in the fir'& paragraph.
B. The fourth paragraph contains an assertion that is evaluated in the fifth
paragraph.
C. The fifth paragraph describes a contrast to the situation presented in the fourth
paragraph.
D. The fifth paragraph discusses the second part of the process described in the fourth
paragraph.
40. In paragraph 5.’charges" most nearly means __
A. costs B. responsibilities C. demands D. attacks
Passage 6
The importance and focus of the interview in the work of ~he print and broadcast
journalist is reflected in several books that have been written on the topic. Most
of these books, as well as several chapters, mainly in, but not limited to. journalist
and broadcasting handbooks and reporting texts, stress the "how to" aspects or
journalistic interviewing rather than the conceptual aspects of the interview, its
context, and implications. Much of the "how to" material is based on personal
experiences and general

impressions. As we know, in journalism as in other fields, much can be. learned from
the systematic study of professional practice. Such study brings together evidence
from which broad generalized principles can be developed.
There is, as has been suggested, a growling body of research literature in
journalism and broadcasting, but very little significant attention has been devoted
to the study of the interview itself. On the other hand, many general texts as well
as numerous research articles on interviewing in fields other than journalism have
been written. Many of these books and articles present, the theoretical and empirical
aspects of the interview as well as the training of the interviewers. Unhappily, this
plentiful general literature about interviewing pays little attention to the
journalistic interview, The fact that the general literature on interviewing does
not deal with the journalistic interview seems to be surprising for two reasons. First,
it seems likely that most people in modern Western societies are more familiar, at
least in a positive manner, with journalistic interviewing than with any other form
of interviewing. Most of us are probably somewhat familiar with the clinical interview,
such as that conducted by physicians and psychologists. In these situations the
professional person or interviewer is interested in getting information necessary
for the diagnosis and
treatment of the person seeking help. Another familiar situation is the job interview.
However, very few of us have actually been interviewed personally by the mass media,
particularly by television. And yet, we have a vivid acquaintance with the
journalistic interview by virtue of our roles as readers, listeners, and viewers.
Even so,
true understanding of the journalistic interview, especially television interviews.
requires thoughtful analyses and even study, as this book indicates.
41. The main idea of the first paragraph is that __
A. generalized principles for journalistic interviews are the chief concern for
writers on journalism
B. concepts and contextual implications are of secondary importance to .journalistic
interviewing
C. importance should be attached to the systematic study of journalistic interviewing
D. personal experiences and general impressions should be excluded from
journalistic interviews
42. Much research has been done on interviews in general
A. but journalistic interviewing as a specific field has unfortunately been neglected
B. though the study of the interviewing techniques hasn't received much attention
C. so the training of journalistic interviewers has likewise been strengthened
D. and there has also been a dramatic growth in the study of journalistic interviewing

43. Westerners are familiar with the journalistic interview. __
A. but most of them wish to stay away from it
B. and many of them hope to be interviewed some day'
C. but most of them may not have been interviewed in person
D. and many of them would like to acquire a true understanding of it
44.Who is the interviewee in a clinic interview?
A. The psychologist. B. The physician.
C. The journalist. D. The patient.
45. The passage is most likely a part of
A. a news article B. a preface
C. a research report D. a journalistic interview
III. Translation and Writing (55 points)
Section A Translation (40%) Translate the following into Chinese:
1) Information processing is the acquisition, recording, organization, retrieval
( 检索 ), display, and dissemination of information. In recent years, the term has
often been applied to computer-based operations specifically,. During the past few
centuries great advances have been made in the human capability to record, store,
and reproduce information, beginning with the invention of printing from movable type
in 1450,
followed by the development of photography and telephony, and culminating in the
mass production of electronic digital computers in the latter half of the 20th century.
New technologies for preserving and transmitting aural and visual information have
further enhanced information processing.
2) The entry of the Anglo-Saxon peoples into Britain, and their centuries-long
successful struggle to establish Germanic kingdoms there, is among the most famous ventures of
the Age of Migrations, but like other historical events of the time it is obscure in much of its detail:
the identity and place of origin of the peoples taking part, the needs and desires that moved them to
entry" and conquest, the lines of invasion, the duration of native resistance, the historicity of the
British Arthur (亚瑟王~ ) .
Translate the following into English:

英语现在是60多个国家使用的官方或半官方语言。他是书包出版、科学技术，广告和通俗音
乐、计算机信息存储所使用的主要国际语言。今天有4亿多以英语为母语，另外大约有4亿人
使用英语作为第二语言，至少还有五亿人把英语作为外语使用。 Section B Writing
(15%)
Read the following passage carefully and then write a summary of it in English in
about 150 words.
Meaning and Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance
The word Renaissance means "rebirth." A number of people who lived in Italy between 1350
and 1550 believed that they had witnessed a rebirth of antiquity or Greco-Roman civilization,
marking a new age. To them, the thousand or so years between the end of the Roman Empire and
their own era was a middle period (hence the "Middle Ages"), characterized by darkness because of
its lack of classical culture Historians of the nineteenth century later used similar terminology to
describe this period in Italy. The Swiss historian and art critic Jacob Burckhardt created the
modern concept of the Renaissance in his celebrated Civilization, o.fi/Te Renaissance in }t@,.
published in 1860. He portrayed Italy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries as the birthplace of
the modern world (the Italians were "the firstborn among the sons of modern Europe") and saw the
revival of antiquity, "the perfecting of the individual," and secularism as its distinguishing features.
Burckhardt exaggerated the individuality and secularism of the Renaissance and failed to recognize
the depths of its religious sentiment; nevertheless, he established the framework for all modern
interpretations of the Renaissance. Although contemporary scholars do not believe that the
Renaissance represents a sudden or dramatic cultural break with the Middle Ages, as Burckhardt
argued--there was. after all, much continuity' in economic, political, and social life between the two
periods--the Renaissance can still be viewed as a distinct period of European history that manifested
itself first in Italy and then spread to the rest of Europe.
Renaissance Italy was largely an urban society. As a result of its commercial preeminence and
political evolution, northern Italy by the mid-fourteenth century was mostly a land of independent
cities that dominated the country districts around them. These city-states became the centers of
Italian political, economic, and social life. Within this new urban society, a secular spirit emerged
as increasing wealth created new possibilities for the enjoyment of worldly things.
Above all, the Renaissance ,a as an age of recovery from the "'calamitous fourteenth century.'"
Italy and Europe began a slow process of recuperation from the effects of the Black Death, political
disorder, and economic recession. This recovery was accompanied by a rebirth of the culture of

classical antiquity. Increasingly aware of their own historical past, Italian intellectuals became
intensely interested in the
Greco-Roman culture of the ancient Mediterranean world. This new revival of classical antiquity
(the Middle Ages had in fact preserved much of ancient Latin culture) affected activities as diverse
as politics and art and led to new attempts to reconcile the pagan philosophy of the Greco-Roman
world with Christian thought, as well as new ways of viewing human beings.
A revived emphasis on individual ability became characteristic of the Italian Renaissance. As
the fifteenth-century Florentine architect Leon Battista Alberti expressed it: "Man can do all
things if they will." A high regard for human dignity and worth and a realization of individual
potentiality created a new social ideal of the well-rounded personality or universal person who was
capable of achievements in
many areas of life.
These general features of the Italian Renaissance were not characteristic of all Italians but
were primarily the preserve of the wealthy upper classes, who constituted a small percentage of the
total population. The achievements of the Italian Renaissance were the product of an elite, rather
than a mass, movement. Nevertheless, indirectly it did have some impact on ordinary people,
especially in the cities, where so many of the intellectual and artistic accomplishments of the period
were most visible_

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